Innholdsfortegnelse for July/August 2021 i National Geographic History

In the last year, the world has begun to revisit the legacy of European colonialism. This August marks the 500th anniversary of one of its most significant events: the fall of Tenochtitlan to the Spanish in 1521. I thought I was pretty familiar with that milestone—National Geographic History published a story about Hernán Cortés a few years back—but as the anniversary approached and we considered story ideas, it hit me that I really only knew one side of the story, that of the Spanish. I didn’t even know the proper name for the people of Mexico who took on Cortés (the term “Aztec” was coined by a European in the 1800s who derived it from the name of an ancestral homeland, Aztlán). Rather than Aztec, they are the Mexica, a…

Whether called phthisis (Greek for “wasting away”), the white plague, or consumption, tuberculosis has been plaguing humanity all over the world for thousands of years. Texts describe the disease in India 3,300 years ago and in China a millennium later. In ancient Greece, Hippocrates called it “the most considerable of the diseases which then prevailed.” In 1680 the English writer John Bunyan ranked tuberculosis among other diseases as “the captain of all these men of death.” In 19th-century Europe and the United States, tuberculosis epidemics were raging, killing an estimated one out of seven people. Those infected seemed to waste away, as if consumed. “Consumption” so traumatized society that its ravages were featured in some of the great works of art from the time, including Puccini’s opera La Bohème, Fyodor…

Jewels dripping over her brocaded gown, the serene Duchess of Florence sits with her young son in this circa 1545 work by Florentine artist Agnolo di Cosimo di Mariano Tori, better known by the name Bronzino. Born in Florence in 1503, Bronzino was one of the greatest practitioners of mannerism, an artistic movement that turned away from the naturalism of High Renaissance art to embrace a more formal, idealized approach to its subjects. His subject, Eleanor of Toledo (also known as Leonor), was a wealthy Spanish noblewoman with ancestral ties to the thrones of Spain and Portugal; she married into the Medici family at age 17 when the new Duke of Florence, Cosimo I de’ Medici, took her for his bride in 1539. The union began as a political match,…

Every day at dawn more than 3,000 years ago, at the height of Egypt’s New Kingdom, the high priest of Amun, also called the “first prophet,” bathed in the sacred lake of the Temple of Karnak at Thebes. Then, followed by servants carrying trays of food, he would approach the naos, the shrine containing a statue of Amun, Egypt’s state god. It was a tense moment: The god could strike down the high priest. To avoid this fate, he would deliver a series of prayers, humbling himself before the god and praising Amun’s name. These daily rituals continued for millenia in the hallowed halls of Karnak. This sacred space occupied the northern part of the ancient city of Thebes. The modern name of Karnak is derived from the Arabic term…

IN LATE SPRING 218 B.C. Hannibal, at least 50,000 troops, and 37 elephants set off from Cartagena on a 1,000-mile trek across the Alps to the plains of northern Italy. In addition to the grueling mountain passage, the five-month journey required the fording of men, supplies, and elephants across two major rivers, the Ebro and the Rhône. Historians are certain that Hannibal crossed the Pyrenees at the Col du Perthus, where a highway links France with Spain today. Despite numerous theories proposed over the last century, his exact Alpine route remains a matter of heated debate.…

From the grounds of a modest temple in the suburbs of Hanoi, Vietnam, to the streets of Southern California, Paris, France, and Sydney, Australia, Vietnamese people across four continents celebrate the lives of two women from the first century A.D., the Trung sisters, on their death anniversary every year, the sixth day of the second lunar month. Often depicted as mounted on elephants, these two women commanded a successful rebellion against the Han (Chinese) dynasty (206 B.C.-A.D. 220) in A.D. 40. To honor these national heroes, Vietnamese peoples, past and present, make offerings and put on parades with colorful elephant floats, waving the flags of the respective national regimes to which they profess allegiance. They reenact the uprising, sometimes with live elephants, to celebrate two women who defied the power…

AN IMPOSING DISK of basalt, three feet high and more than eight feet wide, is known as the Stone of Tizoc—an Aztec monument to one of its leaders. A priest saved the stone from destruction after it was unearthed in Mexico City in the late 1700s. Scholars found that it was carved during the short reign of Tizoc, the seventh Aztec tlatoani (1481-86). On the top, arrows point to the cardinal directions of the compass around a representation of the sun (below). Scenes on the side show Tizoc dressed as the war god Huitzilopochtli in a headdress of hummingbird feathers and pulling an enemy’s hair (right). Each enemy represents one of the 15 cities conquered in his reign (seven are identified below). Today the altar can be seen in the…

Famous the world over, Neuschwanstein Castle is the epitome of a fairy-tale palace. Its soaring turrets inspired the designs of both Walt Disney’s Sleeping Beauty and Cinderella’s castles*, but Neuschwanstein’s creator, King Ludwig II, did not have a charmed life. His reign coincided with the rise of modern Germany, but rather than rule, he retreated to an idealized past by building elaborate castles all over Bavaria. Born in 1845 to the House of Wittelsbach, the ruling family of Bavaria, Ludwig came to power during a period of immense upheaval in Europe. Even so, his legacy would not be statecraft, but the arts. Nicknamed the “swan king,” Ludwig is remembered for his castles and his obsessive patronage of the German composer of epic operas, Richard Wagner. From a young age, Ludwig…

Lohengrin, Wagner’s 1850 opera, is based on a 13th-century German poem about a knight, Lohengrin, who travels to medieval Antwerp in a boat guided by a swan. His mission is to save Princess Elsa, falsely accused of fratricide by an evil nobleman, Count Telramund. After securing a promise from Elsa that she will never ask him his identity, Lohengrin marries Elsa and kills Telramund. But when Elsa breaks her vow, asking him to reveal his name, tragedy ensues. Ludwig nicknamed Sophie Charlotte of Bavaria “Elsa” during their courtship. Their shared passion for Wagner was not enough, however, to save their engagement, which Ludwig broke off in 1867.…

1866 Born in December 1843, Robert Koch graduates from the University of Göttingen, earning a degree in medicine. 1876 Koch’s innovative work identifies the bacterium responsible for anthrax, a serious infectious disease. 1882 In Berlin, Koch presents his discovery of the tubercle bacillus and his scientific testing methods. 1905 For his decades of contributions to medicine and the study of epidemiology, Koch wins the Nobel Prize.…

Hot dogs have been an iconic American food for more than a hundred years. The United States’ love affair with this meal on a bun began sometime in the late 19th century. A few places across the United States claim to be the birthplace of the hot dog, and all trace their origins to German immigrants and the preferred sausages of their hometowns. The sausage is at the heart of many German cuisines. The central German city of Weimar, for example, issued quality standards for its Thuringian sausage in 1432. Consequently, when German immigrants arrived in American cities in the mid to late 19th century, especially in the Midwest, neighborhood butchers began churning out handmade sausages like the ones back home. Sold locally in the 1850s and 1860s, those sausages…

WHEN CITIZENS of the Greek colony of Tarentum in southern Italy faced attack from Rome, they called Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, to their aid. Landing in Italy in 280 B.C., Pyrrhus engaged with the Romans at Heraclea. It was the first time the Roman legions had encountered elephants in battle. The 20 or so huge animals frightened the Roman horses, sowed panic among the ranks, and handed Pyrrhus a victory.…

Following the fall of Tenochtitlan, an Aztec poet composed a searing account of the capture of the capital city. Written in the Nahuatl language, using the Latin alphabet of the Spanish invaders, it is the earliest native account of the sufferings of the Aztec people and their defeat 500 years ago in 1521: Our inheritance, our city, is lost and dead. The shields of our warriors could not save it. We have chewed dry twigs and salt grasses; we have eaten lizards, rats and worms… Today what remains of Tenochtitlan lies underneath Mexico’s thriving capital, Mexico City, one of the most populous cities in the world. Surrounded by modern architecture, the archaeological site of Templo Mayor is revealing more and more about the Aztec city and its inhabitants—a reminder of…

TROUBLED BY INSOMNIA and constant headaches and toothaches (that he tried to soothe with alcohol), Ludwig adopted the habit of making night trips by carriage or sled. He and his retinue would race through Bavarian villages and forests surrounding his residences, undeterred by cold or snow. One stormy night, he came close to crashing over a cliff in the darkness, part of a pattern of increasingly risky behavior that marked the later years of his reign.…

Ludwig’s living quarters at Neuschwanstein were completed shortly before his death in 1886, after which the castle was opened to the public. All the rooms in the king’s quarters were lavishly decorated with Wagnerian themes: The bedroom centers on Tristan and Isolde, and the throne room is dedicated to Parsifal. Ludwig’s personal dining room (photographed here in 1900, 14 years after the king’s death) honors the medieval German works that Wagner used as a basis for his operatic works. POETS AND PRIZES Above the door (far right), the author Wolfram von Eschenbach is shown as a scribe. The works of this 12th- to 13th-century author were adapted by Wagner for Parsifal (1882) and Lohengrin (1850). The larger paintings around the room depict a celebrated contest among minstrels—known in German as…

The Yoruba people of Nigeria believe Ife to be a sacred city founded by the gods and the birthplace of humanity. Lying 135 miles northeast of the Nigerian capital Lagos, Ife was where archaeologists uncovered a series of sculptures that revealed a rich yet overlooked history of Yoruba culture to the world. While some were made of metal and others of terracotta, the heads of Ife share a highly symmetrical style. Some faces are adorned with lines and designs, and elaborate hair styles top their heads. All convey a dignified and imposing majesty. The importance of the human head in the Yoruba cosmology was unknown to the German ethnologist Leo Frobenius, who first saw one of these artworks in 1910. Although his theories regarding the heads’ origins were underpinned by…

CONVERTING SEASHELLS into wind instruments has a long history around the world, but the Marsoulas conch is the only prehistoric shell horn found to date. It is impossible to know if the residents of the Marsoulas Cave had copied an existing instrument or if they made their own innovations when they removed the apex (left-hand illustration), carefully winnowed out a shaft, and inserted a tube—perhaps a reed or hollow bird bone—in the opening (right-hand illustration). Evidence of a brownish residue, likely a resin or wax, was detected on the apex edge and inside the shell, which could have helped hold the mouthpiece in place. The sound of the Marsoulas horn is deep, like that of a large animal; some speculate it sounded like a bison. Due to the artifact’s age,…

KOCH and the French biologist Louis Pasteur clashed over the merits of each other’s work. Both broke significant new ground in the field of epidemiology and enjoyed an early cordial relationship. Competition between the two scientists and their nations led to tension. Nearly a decade after the Franco-Prussian War (which France lost), a translation error at an 1881 medical congress worsened matters. In his presentation, Pasteur referred to Koch’s published studies as a recueil allemand—a compilation of German works. Pasteur’s phrase was mistranslated for Koch as orgeuil allemand—German arrogance. The damage was done, but the rivalry helped spur medical advances.…

1832 During a boat trip, Samuel Morse conceives the idea of the electromagnetic telegraph after talking with a passenger. 1837 Alfred Vail sees a demonstration of the telegraph; he joins Morse as a partner, providing financial resources and mechanical skills. 1840 Morse obtains a patent for the telegraph. Three years later, the U.S. Congress funds the creation of a 40-mile-long telegraph line. 1844 On May 24, Morse sends a message by telegraph—“What hath God wrought”—the first sent in Morse code.…

Romans and Carthaginians had long been at odds with each other, but Rome grew comfortable with the protection of their powerful navy and the sea that separated the two lands. In late 218 B.C. came news that made Italy shudder: Led by the brilliant Hannibal, the Carthaginians were on the march. Thousands of troops had crossed the Mediterranean and marched over the Alps, bringing war elephants with them. After arriving in northern Italy, Hannibal scored some notable victories but eventually was defeated. Rome’s forces were able to drive the Carthaginians from Italy, but Hannibal’s war elephants left a deep impression on the Roman, and later European, imaginations. First-century A.D. historian Livy wrote in his history of Rome of the impact of the beasts on the Gallic tribes who tried to…

THE ELEPHANTS used by Pyrrhus during his invasion of Italy (280-275 B.C.) were likely to have carried crenellated towers on their backs occupied by fighters. The plate (above) in the National Etruscan Museum of Villa Giulia, in Rome, shows one such tower-equipped elephant, and other examples can be found in figurines in the Louvre Museum in Paris, as well as in the Naples National Archaeological Museum (left). Imagery of Asian war elephants from India and Iran often feature these structures as well. THERE IS, HOWEVER, a debate as to whether Carthage’s elephants ever bore towers. Carthaginian silver coins, minted in what is today Spain, show elephants with single riders and no towers. Even so, written sources contradict this conclusion, including the historian Livy, describing the Roman-Carthaginian Battle of Ilipa (206…

CIRCA 1325 The nomadic Mexica people (later called the Aztec by Europeans) settle on an island in Lake Texcoco and found Tenochtitlan, which will become their capital city. 1428 The cities of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan defeat the city of Azcapotzalco. They unite into a Triple Alliance and begin their territorial expansion. 1440 Moctezuma I accedes as ruler of the Mexica, now the dominant power of the Triple Alliance. He and his successors wage ritual wars, especially against the Tlaxcallán people. 1486 Ahuitzotl comes to power and will make major territorial gains, reaching as far as present-day Guatemala. His successor, Moctezuma II, will expand control to the west. 1504 Hernán Cortés first travels to the Americas, reaching Santo Domingo, the capital of Hispaniola. He will go to Cuba in 1511…

1 GOLD AND PRECIOUS STONES In addition to gold necklaces and bracelets, strings of chalchihuitl, precious or semiprecious stones such as emerald and jade, were also requested as tribute by rulers in Tenochtitlan. 2 QUETZAL FEATHERS This bird’s long and brightly colored tail feathers were symbols of abundance, fertility, and life. Highly valued, they were used for all kinds of decorative items, such as ceremonial headdresses and banners. 3 SWEET GUM RESIN The resin of the sweet gum tree had an important ritual application for the Mexica, who burned it in the course of their ceremonies. It also had medical uses—for instance, as a topical application to treat skin infections. 4 TEXTILES A variety of colors and motifs have been carefully depicted on the different types of blankets offered in…

LUDWIG’S REIGN began with rumblings of unease. Theologian Ignaz von Döllinger, the king’s former tutor, confided privately in 1866: “Our Royal Majesty lives only in the realms of legend, poetry, music, and drama … Of the rest of the world, he wishes to know nothing.” By the early 1880s this combination of unworldliness and lavish castle building had pushed Bavaria into financial crisis. The king threatened to take out more loans. When told by his finance minister that creditors might seize his castles to claw back their debt, an enraged Ludwig is said to have threatened suicide.…

ON THE LAST DAY of his life, Ludwig had a good dinner, and then went walking on the grounds of Berg Castle with his physician Bernhard von Gudden. When they failed to return, a search party was sent out in heavy rain, and that same evening the bodies of Ludwig and Gudden were found in Lake Starnberg. Although the king was ruled to have died by drowning, the definitive cause of his death is the focus of a long-running mystery. Despite being only 40 and a strong swimmer, Ludwig died in water that was only waist deep. Examination of the body did not indicate any water in the lungs. Such findings have fueled speculation that murder or suicide may have played a role in Ludwig’s demise.…