Innholdsfortegnelse for Issue 8 - 2023 i Medieval World Culture & Conflict Magazine

Justinian I (r. 527–565), also known as Justinian the Great, was a prominent Eastern Roman (or Byzantine) emperor under whose leadership and ambitions the empire expanded its borders and developed culturally and artistically. His reign and accomplishments have been at the forefront of historical research on the early Middle Ages in part due to the plethora of sources that scholars have for study, including texts written by the court historian Procopius of Caesarea, historical details and writings that help uncover aspects of Justinian’s relationships within the imperial court, surviving monuments and objects, as well as archaeological remains. This issue features some of Justinian’s greatest military and artistic accomplishments, but also the moments of turmoil that troubled his reign, ranging from the Nika Riots to the plague that ravaged Constantinople. Nevertheless,…

A MEDIEVAL SOCIAL SHORTHAND The hereditary and exclusive nature of heraldry meant that it served as a serial shorthand, highlighting ties of kinship and feudal community. As these families became more established and the inter-relationships between them more complex, these were reflected in the heraldry individuals bore on their shields. When a man married a woman from a family with their own arms, it became the norm for him to put both arms on the same shield. In the early days, this was done by ‘dimidiating’ the arms – showing one half of one shield next to the other half of the other family’s shield. Later, the arms were ‘impaled’ – with the whole arms of each family placed side by side. The man’s arms would be on the dexter…

His tireless zeal during his near 40-year reign would see the emperor institute lasting and substantial legal reform that covered nearly all aspects of Byzantine life, and from which much of European law would be based upon until the nineteenth century. Justinian recognized that his empire in its vastness contained many diverse peoples, from the numerous Germanic tribes of Europe to the Vandals and other tribes of North Africa, so to foster homogeny within the empire, Justinian tasked his top legal expert, Tribonian (ca. 475–542), with compiling and codifying all the existing laws. This would collectively come to be known as ‘Justinian’s Code’ and would eventually entail three parts: the Digest (Digesta), a summary of previous legal writings and decisions; the Code (Codex), a compilation of the laws of the…

The Hippodrome was like a smaller version of the Circus Maximus in Rome, and although the sources vary as to its size, the best estimate is that it was approximately 400 metres long and 200 metres wide. It could accommodate roughly 60,000 people. It also had an imperial box called the kathisma for the emperor, which was on the eastern side of the hippodrome and connected to his palace. The kathisma also hosted the Horses of Saint Mark, a statue depicting four horses and a quadriga (four-horse chariot), which in 1204 was looted from the city during the Fourth Crusade. It is now in Venice on the facade of Saint Mark’s Basilica, albeit in replica form (due to damage to the original over time). The spina, the central part of…

The two-day Battle of Dara in 530 would be the culmination of the struggle between two Mediterranean superpowers. The Byzantine general Belisarius and his army of 25,000 infantry and cavalry would confront the Persian king Kavadh’s (473–531) army of over 40,000: numerically superior but of generally lesser quality. A well-timed Byzantine cavalry counterattack ordered by Belisarius carried the day, breaking the elite Immortals, who fought to the last man, with total Persian casualties being as high as 8,000 dead. Belisarius’ casualties are unknown, but the Byzantine victory over the Persians was something that had not happened for a long time, and, while celebrated, it would not completely end the wars with the Persians as they would sporadically go on for some time to come.…

OBJECTS OF AMAZING AND MYSTERIOUS DETAIL Sometime in the fifteenth century, artisans working in the Low Countries began to create a new S type of art object. Called prayer nuts, these new creations appear at first glance as very small pieces of wood, just 10 to 15 cm in diameter. But then you open them up, and that is when the real amazement begins, the inside offers entire scenes depicting people and objects, all microsized. Look very, very carefully and you might see that one person has buttons on his shirt, or spot the individual feathers on an angel’s wing, or that the little bird cage has several doves inside. Contents As art historians began noticing these creations and studying them, various museums began acquiring them. Today we know of…

THE END OF THE MAMLUK SULTANATE Marj Dabiq had both short- and long-term consequences on regional and international history. The Ottomans, under the leadership of Selim I (r. 1512–1520), defeated the Mamluk army, led by the sultan Qansuh alGhawri (r. 1501–1516), allowing them to occupy Syria and invade Egypt the following year, dealing the Mamluks a deathblow and putting an end to their 267-year sultanate. Causes The immediate cause of the war between the Ottomans and the Mamluks in 1516 was the result of the three-way conflict between them and a third Muslim power in the east, the Safavids. Shah Ismail founded the Safavid Empire in 1501, which encompassed what is mostly modern-day Iran and some of its bordering regions. He also declared Twelver Shia Islam as the state religion,…

Dating to the sixth century, the central panel of the socalled Barberini Ivory shows a victorious ruler on horseback, usually identified with Justinian I. Above is a heavenly sphere with a figure of Christ framed by two angels, indicating divine support. The lower panel shows figures rendering homage to the emperor, perhaps reflective of the distant lands conquered and now under his control. The side panels — of which only one survives — show a court official or a general.…

A DECISIVE ENGLISH VICTORY Despenser, laden with supplies, returned to the main body, which was camped with the king on the edge of the forest. At last, the army could have at least one proper meal after two days of fighting and marching. 25 August 1346 On the morning of Friday 25 August, the English marched in the direction of the small town of Crécy-en-Ponthieu. The extensive forest contained one passable road from Noyelles to Crécy. The column made its way cautiously through the forest into the streets of Crécy and up to a high ridge overlooking the whole area. The terrain was perfect for the battle plan that Edward and his marshals envisaged. Between the villages of Wadicourt and Crécy, stood a ridge that sloped down to the River…

THE WITNESS AND HIS SOURCES What followed was nearly three decades of ceaseless war, which would stretch the armed forces and economy of Justinian’s empire to its limits. And yet, despite the great cost, by 565, some of the most economically vital provinces of the old Western Roman Empire in North Africa, Spain, and Italy – which had been lost in the fifth century – had been reintegrated back into a single politea ruled from Constantinople. A great historian We know more about these military campaigns and the politics behind them than any other from late antiquity. At some point, Procopius decided to provide a detailed account of the warfare, which resulted in one of the few histories to survive complete from the ancient world, De bellis or On the…

JUSTINIAN’S MONUMENTAL GREAT CHURCH Emperor Justinian I (r. 527–565) built Hagia Sophia as an imperial Christian church following the Nika Revolt in Constantinople in January 532. The revolt had damaged much of the city, including the fourth-century church on the site, erected by the first Christian emperor, Constantine the Great (r. 306–337), and subsequently rebuilt and rededicated in 415. Justinian’s new church was dedicated to the concept of Holy Wisdom in December 537, and it served from the outset as a symbol of imperial power in Constantinople, throughout the Byzantine Empire, and across the world. The Great Church's architecture The architect-engineers (mechanopoioi) Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus ingeniously designed Hagia Sophia as a unique and monumental structure. The interior layout measures 70 by 76 metres. The engineering feat…

At the core of Belisarius’ army rode the bucellarii, the spearhead of his troops. They were private armies raised by Roman generals and landlords to serve as their household troops and bodyguards, a common practice from the reign of Honorius. The term bucellarrii translates to ‘dry biscuit men’ and is possibly derived from the rations they received. Another theory is that their scale or lamellar armour resembled the shape of the hardtack biscuits. Being the private armies of wealthy landlords and generals, the bucellarii were paid and equipped by them. This meant they were generally better equipped and trained than the average Roman soldier. This also meant that their loyalty lay with their paymasters as opposed to the state. Needless to say, possessing a personal army made one a threat…

FOOD COLOURING IN THE MIDDLE AGES A whole range of dyes was used; most colouring agents in food were plant-based. Roots, leaves, flowers, bark, seeds, and berries: everything was used for a colourful result. Our medieval ancestors also knew how to use animal-based colouring, such as egg yolks for yellow, or ink from cuttlefish for a black dish. The most used colours in recipes in medieval cookbooks are yellow, green, and white. Black, brown, red, and purple were also loved. Even dishes with many colours are known. Yellow and gold Those who could afford it turned to saffron for a gold or yellow glow on a dish. A very expensive spice up to this day, saffron comes from the pistils of the saffron crocus. Since each flower has only three…

Friction between the two powers began decades before Marj Dabiq, during the reign of Mehmed II (r. 1451–1481). Initially, the two powers quarrelled over issues of prestige. The Mamluks monopolized and jealously protected their guardianship of Islam’s holy places and the pilgrimage routes, excluding the Ottomans. When the Ottoman sultan offered to repair wells along the hajj route, his offer was rejected, and his envoys were humiliated. The situation became more serious after Mehmed II’s conquest of Constantinople in 1453. This sultan and his successor Bayezid II (r. 1481–1512) consolidated their hold over Anatolia and encroached east toward the Turkmen principalities of Qaraman and Dhu al-Qadr. Both regions were under Cairo’s sphere of influence and served as buffer states. Additionally, Cem, Bayezid II’s brother and contender for the Ottoman throne,…

'Magical mirror' discovered in Israel A high school student participating in an archaeological dig in northern Israel has uncovered an exceptional find from the Byzantine period—a 1500-year-old ‘magical mirror’. Seventeen-year-old Aviv Weizman took part in an Israel Antiquities Authority archaeological excavation at the ancient site of Usha, as part of the Young Leaders’ Survival Course. During the dig Aviv uncovered an unusual pottery sherd that peeped out of the ground between the walls of a building. Aviv picked up the sherd and showed it to archaeologists, who recognized its importance. According to Navit Popovitch, Israel Antiquities Authority Curator of the classical periods, “The fragment is part of a ‘magical mirror’ from the Byzantine period, the fourth to sixth centuries CE. A glass mirror, for protection against the Evil Eye, was…

POWER, PATRONAGE, AND PROBLEMS IN The foremost function of the royal household was to satisfy the king’s needs. It saw to his requirements both basic and complex, providing food, drink, shelter, security, companionship, money, and religious comfort. Staff and structure Structurally, it was divided into ‘above stairs’ and ‘below stairs’, with several sub-divisions contained within each. The above stairs, or ‘upper’ household, gradually evolved into the great, privy, and bed chambers. Made to impress with its magnificence and spectacle, it was the gathering place for courtiers, nobles, and prominent visitors. The knights and esquires of the body, grooms, valets, and ushers operated within this space under the direction of the chamberlain. It was largely staffed by the gentle born and the politically powerful who were afforded enviable access to the…

IMPERIAL AMBITIONS AND FAILED STRATEGY The Byzantines, centred in the strategically important Constantinople, would push their boundaries in all directions during their ascendancy in attempts to reclaim the glories of their Roman progenitors. But near the border of Armenia, Byzantine leadership failed to grasp the long-term impact of two critical challenges: the extensive wars and building programmes of expansion by Justinian I (482–565) and the unchecked rise of Islamic armies. Both would guarantee Byzantium’s doom at the devastating debacle at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 that saw a Seljuk Turk army inflict a crippling defeat on the Byzantines, as well as the capture of their emperor. Justinian's empire The death of the childless emperor Justin I in 527 was a moment of opportunity and good fortune for his nephew,…

THE NIKA RIOTS, JANUARY 532 The teams were distinguished by colours: blue, green, red, and white. The supporters of the teams were found in every section of society, sometimes even including the emperor. The renowned ancient author Pliny the Younger’s statement on team supporters that “it is the colours they support” (Pliny the Younger, Letters Book 9.6) as opposed to any other aspect of chariot racing still rang true for most supporters in the sixth century. Unlike during Pliny’s time, in the first century and after, the behaviour of the supporters tended toward violence, and there was a criminal-like element within the major teams, more interested in killing members of the opposing team than in the chariot races themselves. Religious motives were never a factor during inter-team rivalry, nor did…

THE BRILLIANCE OF BELISARIUS The traditional date for the end of the Western Roman Empire is AD 476, when the last emperor, Romulus Augustus (or Augustulus), was ousted after a reign of less than a year. The child Augustulus was installed by his father, Orestes, the magister militum (supreme military commander) of the previous short-reigned emperor Julius Nepos. Orestes, who had achieved an honoured position at Attila’s court, ousted the emperor in the capital Ravenna and installed his own son, who was somewhere between ten and fifteen years old. After a reign of only ten months, Orestes was defeated by the commander of his own foederati troops (those with which he had expelled Nepos), Odoacer (or Odovacer). Nepos had not been killed, however, and would continue to fight for his…

JUSTINIAN, THEODORA, BELISARIUS, AND ANTONINA Emperor Justinian was both celebrated and castigated as the ‘sleepless’ emperor, who kept a tireless vigil and worked constantSo dedicated to his work was he that, according to at least one contemporary, the emperor could not even endure his bed, but would rise in the night to work even more. This, combined with the great length of his reign (38 years), encourages an image of an isolated ruler, an autocrat in deed as well as name. In truth, however, Justinian worked very closely with several very powerful men and women over the course of his reign. These individuals were his closest advisors, his trusted confidants, and the officials that turned his policy ideas into reality. They helped him to reshape not just the Byzantine Empire…

I imagine that this strawberry pudding, from an English cooking manuscript from around 1450, must have been spectacular on a medieval table dressed with a white tablecloth. The pomegranate seeds are a beautiful detail from the chef. It is a dish for fast days. If you leave the butter out, it is even vegan. The almonds and rice flour thicken the mixture, so you can also make this dish in a mould. I put it in glasses and topped it with some raspberries sprinkled with a hint of black pepper. Ingredients » 300 ml water » 125 g ground almonds » 300 g strawberries » 100 ml red wine » 3 tbsp rice flour » 75 g sugar » small pinch of ground saffron » ¼ tsp black pepper » ½…

THE SHARP END OF ROYAL CORONATIONS So, what are the five swords that featured in the king’s inauguration as monarch, and where do they come S from? The newest of the bunch is the so-called ‘Sword of Offering’. This was made for the coronation of George IV in 1821, to his own design. It is this sword that is blessed by the Archbishop and presented to the monarch with the injunction that they use it to ‘protect the good and punish evil’ – the invocation that lies at the heart of the use of swords in the medieval inaugurations of kings. Originally, the sword was the monarch’s own, and its offering to the altar was a personal pledge. George’s sword was also meant to be retained by the monarch, but,…

The Bronze Horseman of Justinian in Constantinople By Elena N. Boeck Cambridge University Press, 2021 ISBN: 978-1108178341 Justinian: Empire and Society in the Sixth Century By Fiona K. Haarer Edinburgh University Press, 2022 ISBN: 978-0748636785 Belisarius & Antonina: Love and War in the Age of Justinian By David Alan Parnell Oxford University Press, 2023 ISBN: 978-0197574706 Masculinity, Identity, and Power-Politics in the Age of Justinian: A Study of Procopius By Michael Edward Stewart Amsterdam University Press, 2020 ISBN: 978-9048540259 The Power Game in Byzantium: Antonina and the Empress Theodora By J.A.S. Evans Continuum, 2011 ISBN: 978-1441140784 The Oxford History of Byzantium Edited by Cyril Mango Oxford University Press 2002 ISBN: 978-0198140986 Theodora: Actress, Empress, Saint By David Potter Oxford University Press, 2015 ISBN: 978-0199740765 The Wars of Justinian I By…