Innholdsfortegnelse for Issue 5 - 2023 i Medieval World Culture & Conflict Magazine

Strategically situated at the heart of the Mediterranean and at the crossroads of distinct cultures and often competing traditions, Sicily emerged as a diverse, sophisticated, powerful, and contested territory during the Middle Ages. Between the eighth and ninth centuries, the Byzantine Empire and the Arabs routinely clashed over control of Sicily. In the following centuries, the Normans from northern France settled in the region and parts of Southern Italy, further transforming the cultural complexity of the area. The Norman rulers of Sicily – among the wealthiest in all of medieval Europe – were ambitious figures whose political aspirations, extravagant tastes, and artistic patronage elevated the kingdom and its global reach. This issue highlights Sicily's contacts and conflicts that contributed, on the one hand, to the rise of an exquisite local…

An early medieval necklace made of gold, garnets, and semi-precious stones has been found by archaeologists working in central England. Dubbed the ‘Harpole Treasure’, this is being called an internationally significant discovery. Archaeologists from the Museum of London Archaeology (MOLA) made the discovery in the village of Harpole in Northamptonshire during excavations for a housing development. The necklace was found in the grave of a woman and dates to between AD 630 and 670. The grave’s skeleton itself has fully decomposed (with the exception of tiny fragments of tooth enamel). However, the combination of grave goods suggest this was a very devout high-status woman such as an abbess, royalty, or perhaps even both. This necklace is the richest of its type ever uncovered in Britain with at least a staggering…

THE TRANSFORMATION OF MAURICE In the heart of central Germany, there is an intriguing symbol along the streets of the quaint medieval town of Coburg. It is a representation of a dark-skinned African man who is a celebrated patron. Thousands of miles away, in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, hangs a painting of this same individual, completed ca.1500 by Lucas Cranach the Elder. Throughout Germany, France, Italy, and Switzerland, the patronage for Saint Maurice runs deep. But who is this striking figure? Origins The earliest historical chronicles of Christian saints were compiled by Eusebius of Caesarea and Eucherius of Lyon, both early bishops in the Roman Empire. The hagiography of Maurice begins in the Passio Acaunesium martyrum ("The Passion of the Martyrs of Agaunum"), written in…

BLENDED IN A COMPLEX LAND These Normans were few. So few, in fact, that according to chronicler William of Apulia they welcomed into their ranks anyone who wished to join them, teaching them their customs and language, and greeting them as one of their own. And as soon as they were in the South, they started marrying. Few Norman noblemen married English noblewomen, and such marriages often seem to have been unwanted and traumatic, but things in the South were different. Immediately, the Norman mercenaries started marrying Lombard noblewomen of the Campanian ducal and princely houses. Their children would only be 'children of Normans,' born far from Normandy itself. A Norman invasion If you asked the chroniclers, apparently, the story was clear: the same warlike people, the Normans, had occupied…

MEDIEVAL PAINTED CEILINGS IN SICILY Reflecting on the work of earlier writers and poets, thirteenth-century geographer Yākūt al-Rūmī records some of the popular reasons behind Sicily’s enchantment in his work Mu'jam alBuldān (Dictionary of Countries): Sicily has gushing fountains, rushing rivers, and enticing delicacies … In the very centre of Sicily rises a mountain called qasr yānihi (Castrogiovanni or modern-day Enna), a wonder among the wonders of the world. There at the summit is a grand towered city, and around all of this are farmlands and gardens, which run right to the city’s gate. This city rises majestically toward the sky. From [the island’s] heights and surrounding countryside, rivers surge, and the same may be said of all the island’s mountains. There is also the Mountain of Fire (Mount Etna),…

Yet it is not only natural disasters that have afflicted Sicily, but also the havoc wrought by men, and this even within modern memory. In 1943, the strategic location of the island led to its choice as the first landing place in Europe for the Allied forces. The damage caused by Allied aerial bombardment devastated many cities, not only at mountain strongholds such as Troina, but also in major urban centres such as Palermo, with tragic results for local populations, their homes, and their historic monuments. In 1943, one officer described Palermo in his diary: “Whole blocks of shapeless rubble. Parlor, bedroom, and bath exposed… by the fantastic projectile that strips away the façade and leaves intact the hat on the bureau, the mirror on the wall, the carafe on…

MEDIEVAL SICILY'S CULINARY HISTORY Amoung other things, the Arabs introduced new techniques for the irrigation and cultivation of crops, as well as grain mills and sugar refineries. They also brought ingredients from the Arab world that were new to the island. In kitchen gardens aubergines and spinach were planted; orchards with lemons, oranges, and mulberries; fields were sown with rice and sugar cane; and date palms appeared in many gardens. In the second half of the eleventh century, the brothers Robert and Roger de Hauteville conquered Sicily, and Roger (1031-1101) became count of the island. Roger's policy was tolerant toward the Arabs. Many Muslim traders, farmers, and servants stayed in Sicily. Their knowledge was valued, and their impact on culinary culture continued. Wheat and pasta When I think about Sicily…

THE 1264 BATTLE OF NORTHAMPTON The battle at Northampton was the first major encounter in the conflict often described today as the ‘Second Barons’ War’, which broke out amid an extraordinary period of radicalpolitics in England. In 1258, a group of magnates, including the earls of Leicester and Gloucester, had executed a palace coup aimed at limiting the individual power of the king. An uneasy period of reforms and power struggles ensued until, in 1263, Henry felt strong enough to reassert his authority and defy the reformer barons. The subsequent dispute over how the country should be governed was brought before the French king, and the outcome – the socalled ‘Mise of Amiens’ in January 1264 – fell firmly in Henry’s favour. With the political crisis at an impasse, both…

The Latin term mauri, from the Greek mαῦροι, is a historical term used to describe the colourfully diverse native inhabitants of North Africa. It offers perhaps an additional clue into the origins of Saint Maurice (Mauritius). Throughout Herodotus and Strabo, the more ancient term Aithiopía further illuminates the presence of individuals and groups with African descent. These terms are ethnologically flawed, however, and the more ambiguous saraceni is a specifically antagonizing term popularized by crusaders beginning in the twelfth century. From Arthurian legends to Shakespearean plays, the medieval world is filled with these terms and figures that allow a paper trail into the sociology of the past and the various interactions of different cultures across time.…

THE ARABS AND BYZANTINES CLASH (827-902) In AD 673, a large army consisting of 200 vessels sailed from Alexandria to Syracuse, the ancient capital of the island, which was besieged and then violently plundered. After this disastrous attack, the city's mighty walls were heavily damaged, and there were no more funds available to restore them. As a result, it was decided to fortify only the citadel. This slow process of military and defensive disintegration led to a weakening of the island, although this was mitigated slightly by the arrival of the administrative reform of the themata. Sicily became 'Sikelia thema'. The strategos served as the military and political leader of the island and resided in Syracuse. He commanded two turmai, composed of about 1000 men each. A turma was in…

Norman Sicily leaves us with many fine examples of Byzantine mosaics, many of which appear to have been created by artists from the Empire. One that survives from Roger's reign, which depicts the monarch himself, is located in the Church of Santa Maria dell'Ammiraglio. It is an extraordinary image that shows Roger being crowned by Christ himself - a complicated representation of the king that, if read carefully, reveals a great deal about Roger's perception of himself and his future intentions for his kingdom. As with so many things in Norman Sicily, the image was inspired by another culture but tailored to better suit the interests of its ruler. Just one example of this is the attempt at Christomimesis - an imitation of Christ's physical appearance. Due to the theological…

A microscopic survey of 150 samples taken from painted panels found that the majority (137 samples) were cedar or fir (Abies sp., Cedrus sp., and Abies nebrodensis) and that the carpenters were selective in their use of materials for specific parts of the ceiling. The robust size of fir and pine trunks –at least 60 cm and quarter sawn – contributed to the structural frame of the ceiling and some vertical and horizontal painted panels; beech (Fagus sylvatica), birch (Betula sp.), and poplar (Populus sp.) were transformed into thousands of thinner slats for the sculptural parts of the ceiling, such as the painted niches of the muqarnas. The analysis corrects earlier claims by art historians that the ceiling was carved and made of cedar, which had placed the chapel in…

MEDIEVAL RULER, REBEL, AND RENEGADE Eleanor's position as duchess of Aquitaine, having made her one of the wealthiest heiresses of Western Europe by her fifteenth birthday, enabled her to exercise considerable influence in political matters. Her early years were in the Aquitanian court with her father William X, duke of Aquitaine, mother Aenor of Châtellerault, and siblings Petronilla (or Alix) and William. The ducal court was a centre of cultural and intellectual exchange, and Eleanor received an excellent education there, learning Latin, arithmetic, and history alongside the domestic skills women were traditionally taught, as well as courtly pastimes like dancing and games. The death of her brother William in 1130 made Eleanor heir presumptive, and she acceded to the duchy upon her father's death in 1137. Queen of France Eleanor…

In 2008, a gold-plated pendant was discovered in Mainz, Germany. Researchers believed that the pendant was around 800 years old, and that something was hidden inside it. However, trying to physically open it could damage the artefact. Therefore, they decided to scan the pendant with a neutron beam. The research was carried out by a team from Leibniz-Zentrum für Archäologie (LEIZA), part of the Technical University of Munich. They used tomography and prompt gammaray activation analysis (PGAA) with neutrons to scan the interior of the pendant. It revealed five individual packets made of silk and linen, with bone splinters packed in each. They believe the bone splinters were religious relics. “Neutron non-destructive testing was particularly helpful because we couldn’t just open the trailer and look inside,” explains restorer Matthias Heinzel…

WHY IS IT EVERYWHERE? Heraldry is closely interwoven with the development of knights and knighthood. Contrary to popular opinion, heraldry did not materialize as a system that revealed friends from foes when the knight started wearing great helms, which covered their faces, rendering them unidentifiable. Instead, it developed out of the much older tradition of military leaders having a banner that could be seen across the battlefield, acting as a rallying symbol, and a challenge to their enemies. These noblemen’s military retainers started wearing their lord’s symbol on their own shields. This served to enhance the lord’s status: the size and bearing of his retinue reflected his power and wealth. As the status of the knight increased, kings and nobles adopted elements of knightly and chivalric culture. Chivalry, the culture…

Housed inside Moritzburg was an illustrated inventory of these ecclesiastical collections called the Liber ostensionis, which is an invaluable keystone in the study of Saint Maurice because it details perhaps his greatest reliquary, which no longer exists. At some point during the tenure of Cardinal Albrecht, his Neues Stift church would have been adorned with a life-sized silver statue of Maurice that embodied both his veneration and indulgence. Ironically, it was this same opulent lifestyle of Cardinal Albrecht that not only forced him to smelt this statue to pay off debts but also triggered one of his followers, Martin Luther, to lead protests against the clergy. Nevertheless, a hand illustration was done of this statue around 1526 in the workshop of Lucas Cranach before it was destroyed.…

A SELF-MADE MEDIEVAL MONARCH In the process, Roger leveraged numerous elements from the diverse cultures that surrounded him to project his power across the wider Mediterranean world. What this incredibly ambitious ruler achieved in just a few decades is nothing short of astounding. An uncertain future Roger I was the son of a minor Norman lord whose main claim to fame is the twelve sons he produced with his two wives. The political state that Roger I had created with the support of his older brother, Robert Guiscard, was fragile and new. It was not until 1091 that Roger I had the entire island under his control. Sicily was won as a result of a long, drawn-out campaign prosecuted by very small armies. Once the conquest of the island was…

Robert de Hauteville, a Norman warlord nicknamed Guiscard (meaning ‘wily’ or ‘the weasel’), issued coins at Salerno bearing his portrait in the regalia of a Byzantine emperor. The reverse depicts Salerno's distinctive arches and towers. When Robert died, he was succeeded by his brother Roger, who defeated the Arabs and completed the conquest of Sicily. According to the chronicler Goffredo Malaterra, Roger was “a youth of the greatest beauty, of lofty stature, of graceful shape, most eloquent in speech and cool in counsel. He was far-seeing in arranging all his actions, pleasant and merry with all men; strong and brave, and furious in battle.” Roger became count of Sicily in 1071. From his stronghold of Mileto in Calabria, Roger issued a large copper trifollaro, inscribed in Latin, bearing an image…

DESTRUCTION, CHANGE, AND RENEWAL In the millennia prior to the unification of Italy, parts of the island were under Phoenician, Greek, Byzantine, Muslim, Norman, French, and Spanish control. This occurred both sequentially and simultaneously. New cultures and political regimes supplanted and sometimes also co-existed alongside their predecessors with the continued use of languages, religions, administrators, artists, and builders. At the crossroads Sicily was a bridge between Africa and Europe as well as a gateway between east and west. Until the modern era, travel and transport by sea were far more efficient and comfortable than travel by land, so the location of Sicily in between two continents and the two halves of the Mediterranean Sea made it a priceless strategic location. The island was also a major source of wheat and…

THE CULTURAL IMPACT OF GUNPOWDER ARTILLERY IN FIFTEENTH-CENTURY NAPLES According to a nineteenth-century transcription of a lost ledger, the Neapolitan Book of Armaments (libro degli armamenti) was authored in 1474 by a not very well-known court painter, Giosuè Cantelmo. Like a sketchbook, it is devoid of written text, containing only 135 drawings of different guns of various sizes: only a few words on its last page – “the book of artillery on the shelf of vernacular manuscripts” – prove that it belonged to the library of the Aragonese sovereigns of Naples. It is not clear why King Ferrante decided to commission this extravagant piece of art, the very first of its kind. The poor quality of the paper and the rudimentary style of the illustrations do not match the description…

Where Three Worlds Met: Sicily in the Early Medieval Mediterranean By Sarah Davis-Secord Cornell University Press, 2017 ISBN: 978-1501704642 Roger II Of Sicily: Family, Faith, and Empire in the Medieval Mediterranean World By Dawn Marie Hayes Brepols Publishers, 2020 ISBN: 978-2503581408 Roger II and the Creation of the Kingdom of Sicily Translated by Graham Loud Manchester University Press, 2012 ISBN: 978-0719082023 Sanctity and Pilgrimage in Medieval Southern Italy, 1000-1200 By Paul Oldfield Cambridge University Press, 2014 ISBN: 978-1316648902 The Normans: Power, Conquest and Culture in 11th Century Europe By Judith Green Yale University Press, 2022 ISBN: 978-0300180336 The Painted Ceilings of the Cappella Palatina By Jeremy Johns and Ernst J. Grube The Bruschettini Foundation, 2005 ISBN: 978-1872843810 Sicily: An Island at the Crossroads of History By John Julius Norwich Random…