Innholdsfortegnelse for No. 102 i History of War

Of the many often-noted similarities between the rise of Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler, perhaps the most intriguing is their experiences of the First World War. As veterans, the conflict had a big impact on both men personally, but more significant was how its aftermath set the stage for their political ideologies to grow. This issue, Professor Richard Bosworth spoke with Tom Garner about how the First World War served as the crucible of Mussolini’s fascist dictatorship, and how it set Italy on a terrible, self-destructive path towards an alliance with Nazi Germany. FOR MORE FROM THE HISTORY OF WAR TEAM VISIT WWW.HISTORYANSWERS.CO.UK…

In his famous work The Gallic War, Caesar made the first detailed description of Britain. His own experience of Britain was confined to Kent and the Thames Valley but he gathered enough information to form some geographical sense of the island. He inaccurately described it as “triangular in form” but did show a relatively more accurate awareness of the area around the Irish Sea: “The west, on which part is Ireland, less, as is reckoned, than Britain, by one half: but the passage from it into Britain is of equal distance with that from Gaul. In the middle of this voyage, is an island, which is called Mona.” Mona probably refers to the Isle of Man but Caesar’s most fascinating observations are of the Britons themselves. He considered the people…

Caesar should not have been able to emerge victorious in the civil war against Pompey. Pompey had more troops, more resources, more experience and the backing of more of the Roman Senate. What he did not have, however, was the sense of desperation that Caesar displayed. Caesar knew he had to act quickly to secure a victory. He also knew that he would need to put his own spin on his conduct; this had worked supremely well during his conquest of Gaul and in his own written account of those campaigns – De Bello Gallico (The Gallic Wars). So he penned an account of the civil wars too to justify his behaviour. It was not only a propaganda battle, however. Caesar had learned in his campaigns in Gaul (where he…

ALLEGIANCE: Soviet Union LENGTH OF SERVICE: 1941-53 KILLS: 309 When Germany invaded the Soviet Union, Lyudmila Pavlichenko rushed to join up. She rejected the recruiting officer’s suggestion that she become a nurse and insisted that she become a sniper due to her childhood years on the shooting range. Any hesitation that Pavlichenko might have had in taking another life evaporated when a fellow soldier was shot as he hid in her sniper’s nest at the Siege of Odessa. “After that, nothing could stop me,” Pavlichenko later wrote. She got the first of her kills later that day when she shot two German scouts. During the next two months Pavlichenko claimed more than 100 other victims. After Axis troops overran Odessa, she was withdrawn and sent to a second city under…

ALLEGIANCE: Soviet Union LENGTH OF SERVICE: 1941-45 KILLS: 429 An ethnic Yakut born in the eastern USSR and orphaned at the age of five, Fyodor Okhlopkov eventually escaped the poverty of his home village when he was conscripted into the army in 1941 and became a machine-gunner. He was identified as a potential sniper in late 1942 when his unit was rebuilt following a bloody month in which 80 per cent were killed or wounded. Perhaps more than any other sniper, Okhlopkov demonstrated a range of skills. Aside from sniping, he continued to take shifts in the machine-gun nests and also wielded an anti-tank rifle. Whereas many snipers were kept away from danger once their kill count and propaganda value rose, Okhlopkov was allowed to go on hazardous reconnaissance patrols…

As far back as military history goes, warriors have practised for war. However, in the late 11th century a new kind of event emerged in north-west France that combined training with spectacle — the tournament. This event saw hundreds of knights fight in two teams in open countryside, often supported by foot soldiers. The name ‘tournament’ was first mentioned in 1114 and derives from the turning or wheeling manoeuvres involved. The aim was to capture opposing knights for ransom, providing money as well as good training. Individual combats with lances were called jousts, probably from the Latin ‘juxtare’, ‘to meet together’ and Middle French ‘joster’, ‘to encounter’. During this period they sometimes took place before the main battle, reflecting the real-life practice of champions from opposing armies challenging each other.…

National Army Museum Tank Exhibition James Holland, author of Brothers in Arms, has teamed up with the National Army Museum to highlight the changing role of tanks in WWII Located in Chelsea, London, the National Army Museum has joined up with the internationally acclaimed and award-winning historian, writer and broadcaster James Holland to present a new temporary exhibition. This event, called Brothers in Arms, after Holland’s book of the same title, will run until 6 May 2022, examining how the use of tanks on the battlefield has adapted to the ever-changing circumstances of modern conflict. The fascinating story will be told through the lens of the Sherwood Rangers Yeomanry during the Second World War, a unit hardened under the burning sun of North Africa before landing on Gold Beach on…

In 1794 the Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry (Prince of Wales’ Own Royal Regiment) came into existence at the Bear Hotel in Devizes, which today remains the RWY’s spiritual home. The motto ‘Primus in Armis’, meaning ‘First in Arms’, reflects the regiment’s position in the order of precedence decided by the War Office in 1885. Following mobilisation in September 1939 the regiment continued with mounted training in rural Somerset and Nottinghamshire, with the awful winter weather the only significant threat to the horses’ welfare and the troops’ morale. A bitterly cold January followed and on the 30th of that month the order to move overseas was finally received. By February 1940, the RWY had left England with a strength of 33 officers and 752 other ranks; the journey south and away from…

BATTLE OF WAKE ISLAND Wrecked Wildcat fighter planes are pictured in the aftermath of the Battle of Wake Island. Located 3,200km west of Hawaii, the island was manned by a small garrison of just over 500 officers and men, a majority of whom were US Marines. The initial Japanese attack was repulsed by the Americans, who held out on the island until 23 December, when amphibious troops landed and overwhelmed them. The Japanese lost two ships, one submarine, 21 aircraft and approximately 1,000 casualties during the fight for Wake Island. Imperial Japan maintained its occupation until 1945. FALL OF HONG KONG In tandem with its assaults against the US, Imperial Japan also attacked British colonial possessions in Southeast Asia in December 1941. The Battle of Hong Kong began just hours…

Director: Matthew Hill and Landon Johnson Studio: Signature Entertainment Released: DVD & Digital 10 January It’s the summer of 1940 and France, a once formidable nation, lies defeated and dejected, now ruled by its new German masters in collaboration with the puppet Vichy Government. With the British having scrambled to evacuate from Dunkirk there is no prospect of salvation, and by the end of 1941 necessities such as food and medicine have become perishingly scarce. However, a courageous few refuse to be beaten and instead resist the Third Reich. Among them is Jacques, a former pastor from Alsace-Lorraine (played by Cary Elwes, who doesn’t quite stretch to the accent but is far from alone in not doing so) who has taken to broadcasting illegal radio messages from an attic in…

Author: MJ Trow Publisher: Pen & Sword Books Price: £25 On sale: Out now The Battle of Balaklava is probably the most well-known clash of arms of the Crimean War. The disastrous charge of the Light Brigade, which took place during the battle, is also probably the most infamous event of that distant conflict. In the years since the action the Light Brigade’s charge has been the subject of numerous books, poems and films. The fact it is viewed as a disaster is why it remains much talked about among those interested in Victorian military history and why it has appealed to filmmakers. Yet there were two other – less well-remembered but far more successful – events that also occurred during the battle. The first was the stand of the…

Henry II (1519-59) was king of France between 1547-59. A monarch of the Valois-Angoulême dynasty, his short reign was marked by military hostilities. Henry declared war against Holy Roman Emperor Charles V in a conflict that became known as the Italian War of 1551-59. Ambitious for French domination in Italy, Henry also led offensives in Lorraine where his armies captured the cities of Metz, Toul and Verdun. Calais was recaptured from the English but his reign also saw French defeats in Tuscany and Flanders. As a proud martial king, Henry was fond of military parades, which is reflected in this elaborate suit of armour that belonged to him. Dated to 1555, it is an exceptional example of 16th century French armour and it still retains much of its original colouring.…

PROF. RICHARD BOSWORTH Professor Bosworth is Emeritus Fellow, Jesus College Oxford, and has written several books on Mussolini and Italian history. Over on page 24 he spoke with Features Editor Tom Garner about the rise of Mussolini during and after World War I. MURRAY DAHM For this issue’s Frontline Murray takes a look at the many wars of Julius Caesar, from his early conquests of the Gauls to his great rivalry with Pompey that sparked a bloody civil war and saw the emergence of the Roman Empire. ALEX BOWERS For this issue’s Heroes of the Victoria Cross, on page 46, Alex takes a look at one of the heroes of the Charge of the Light Brigade: Alexander Dunn. Read how this young Hussar officer saved his fellow cavalryman in the…

ALLEGIANCE: Soviet Union LENGTH OF SERVICE: 1937-45 KILLS: 225 When Germany invaded, Vasily Zaitsev was serving as a clerk in the Pacific Fleet on the far side of Russia. He requested a frontline posting and arrived in time for the Battle of Stalingrad. It was a move that paid off handsomely: Zaitsev killed 32 enemy soldiers with a standard-issue rifle, and his kill-count increased rapidly after he was given a sniper rifle and optical sight. He excelled amid the burned-out buildings of Stalingrad. In two bloody months he killed 225 enemy soldiers from concealed positions. As his reputation grew, Zaitsev was given command of multiple snipers and ordered to defend several open areas. He developed a strategy in which three snipers worked together from three different positions, each supported by…

ALLEGIANCE: Nazi Germany LENGTH OF SERVICE: 1942-45 KILLS: 257 A compatriot of Matthäus Hetzenauer in the 3rd Mountain Division, Allerberger discovered he had a sniper’s eye while experimenting with a captured Soviet rifle. His first kill came when he took out a Soviet sniper who was pinning down German troops. Allerberger patiently identified his position by showing a dummy target, then settled down to shoot from between two tree stumps. When German observers rushed out to confirm the kill, they discovered that Allerberger had shot his opponent through his right eye. The 19-year-old self-taught sniper made 23 confirmed kills before being sent for formal training. Upon his return to the Eastern Front, Allerberger proved himself on more than one occasion. In one encounter at Balakovo, he despatched 18 female snipers…

Located at its headquarters in Moorgate, London, the British Red Cross Museum has recently opened its doors to the public. The collection includes a wide variety of historical and contemporary items, not least several pieces related to the conflicts that the British Red Cross was engaged in while saving countless lives. Among them is the Changi quilt, which was made by Allied internees of the Japanese Changi prison during the Second World War. When the British stronghold of Singapore surrendered to the Japanese in February 1942, thousands of doctors, teachers, nurses, nuns, missionaries, police and their families found themselves at the mercy of the invading forces. Women and children from Britain, Denmark, Australia, Canada and beyond were separated from the men and forbidden from communicating. Patchwork quilts, created by women…

Very little has been written about the military career of this flamboyant and internationally famous member of the regiment. Born in 1911, Prince Aly Khan, son of Aga Khan, the leader of the Ismaili Muslims, joined the French Foreign Legion in 1939 and was immediately posted to Beirut. In late 1940, disillusioned with the Vichy French, he like many other Frenchmen crossed the border into Palestine; the Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry war diary records Aly Khan coming onto regimental strength in November. He was already well known to some of the aristocratic yeomanry officers, including Lord Weymouth and Earl Cadogan. However, Aly Khan didn’t spend much time at regimental duty as military intelligence in Cairo soon heard about his recruitment, his knowledge of Syria and its people, and his fluency in…

Editors: John M Jennings & Chuck Steele Publisher: Reaktion Books Price: £16.99 On sale: February 2022 This book examines a rogues’ gallery of military leaders from across history who may be judged to have failed as a result of their own errors rather than through the brilliance of an opposing commander. Some of them failed in terms of strategic vision and planning, some because of tactical ineptitude, and others as the result of serious flaws of character. The core argument put forth in these essays is that for every commander who has won acclaim for solving immense problems in the crucible of war, there is at least one other who has failed to do so. While losing is not always the hallmark of a lack of ability, there are some…

Author: Ian Baxter Publisher: Pen & Sword Books Price: £14.99 On sale: Out now Sandwiched between the totalitarian giants of Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, the three tiny Baltic states of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia were doomed to suffer at the hands of both during the Second World War, first being occupied by the Red Army in 1940 before being ‘liberated’ by the advancing Wehrmacht in 1941. That ‘liberation’ was a sham, with the Nazis determined to wipe out the region’s Jews and use the local populations for their own ends. With his usual attention to detail Ian Baxter documents the formation of the first ad hoc paramilitary units in the area; most of these units were utilised to fight Red Army stragglers and Partisans as well as assist…

ALLEGIANCE: Nazi Germany LENGTH OF SERVICE: 1943-45 KILLS: 345 Born in a small village in the Austrian Alps, Matthäus Hetzenauer learned his deadly trade hunting deer in the hills. Officers identified his excellent marksmanship after he was drafted into the Wehrmacht at the age of 17, and he was quickly transferred to sniper school. Hetzenauer was unleashed in the Carpathians in August 1944 with orders to protect mountain artillery units from the advancing Red Army. Almost every day the Germans came under attack from Soviet guns. Hetzenauer slipped away from the lines to find a position from which he could take out any officers who were unfortunate enough to draw his attention. During one Soviet assault, Hetzenauer shot dead eight different company commanders, throwing the attack into confusion. Hetzenauer stayed…

The personal and sometimes harrowing diaries written by Polish officers during the months before they were murdered in the Katyn Massacre have been published in English for the first time. The moving entries show how the victims were unaware of the grisly fate that awaited them, and reveal their everyday lives in the Soviet camps, their thoughts, plans and dreams. The Katyn Massacre was a series of mass executions of nearly 22,000 Polish military officers and intelligentsia that was carried out by the Soviet Union’s secret police, the NKVD, in April and May 1940. This was following the Soviet Union’s surprise attack on Poland on 17 September 1939 – after which Germany and Soviet Russia had carved up the country between them. Poland’s conscription system required every non-exempt university graduate…

Utilised by the prime minister and government during the Second World War, the Churchill War Rooms provide a unique insight into how Britain’s leaders led the war effort during those perilous times. Nigel Steel is part of the team that preserves and tells the history of the War Rooms. Here, he discusses their origins, how they were used during the war and how their history has been rediscovered and retold in the post-war years. Could you describe how the War Rooms came into being? Throughout the 1930s the British government became increasingly aware of the growing threat in the centre of Europe: Adolf Hitler consolidates power and Benito Mussolini is a lesser but noisy threat. Meanwhile the Japanese scrap naval treaties and move aggressively across China during the period. There…