Innholdsfortegnelse for No. 88 i History of War

July-October 1940 BATTLE OF BRITAIN The origins of the Blitz lie in the Luftwaffe’s failure to eliminate the RAF before an invasion of Britain. The Germans initially apply strategic bombing to RAF Fighter Command’s airfields but lose the battle when they divert their bomber aircraft to destroy British industrial centres. 25 August 1940 BOMBING OF BERLIN After a Luftwaffe attack on London on 24 August, RAF Bomber Command retaliates by launching bombing raids in Germany, including Berlin. The German capital suffers minimal damage but an infuriated Adolf Hitler, who is also frustrated with the lack of progress against the RAF, orders the Luftwaffe to concentrate their efforts against British cities. 7 September 1940 01 BLACK SATURDAY The Blitz begins in earnest when 348 Luftwaffe bombers accompanied by 617 fighters attack…

Historians generally agree that the seeds of Nazi Germany’s defeat in the World War II were sown during the Battle of Britain. Royal Air Force fighters and anti-aircraft weapons downed so many black-crossed Luftwaffe planes that the Germans ended their bid for mastery of the air over the English Channel and the British Isles. Operation Sea Lion, the invasion of Britain, was shelved and never resurrected. Perhaps, though, the defeat of the Luftwaffe in the great air battle was a foregone conclusion. Was Germany destined to lose the Battle of Britain before it began? Observers continue to debate this tantalising question, and some have concluded that the failure of Luftwaffe planners to commit to a heavy, four-engine, strategic bomber design in the 1930s actually spelled doom – not only in…

In 1939 many young policemen were armed forces reservists and police numbers sharply declined as its members left to fight. The gaps were filled by volunteers who were either too old to fight or working in reserved occupations. Approximately 130,000 were special constables who either became full-time regular officers or contributed on-duty hours when they could. These numbers expanded the police service by 50 per cent although the part-time special constables were unpaid. The police’s duties increased from standard law enforcement to wartime priorities such as preventing widespread looting and fraud, enforcing blackouts, assisting rescue services and pursuing military deserters. All police officers, including special constables, had the power to arrest but the pressures of the war led to an increased sickness rate across British forces. The Metropolitan Police alone…

01 XERXES INVADES Xerxes invaded Greece at the head of a massive army and navy. He crosses the Hellespont in April 480 BCE and makes his way towards mainland Greece, reaching Thermopylae in early September. There the Greeks try to delay him, at Thermopylae by land and Artemisium by sea. 02 THE ADVANCE CONTINUES With the defeat at Thermopylae, the Greeks withdraw from Artemisium. The Persian fleet has suffered losses in storms (of perhaps as many as 600 ships). These are replaced by reinforcements. 03 LAST STAND AT SALAMIS The Greek fleet withdraws to Salamis, off the coast of Attica. There they are joined by other Greek ships. Fierce debate on whether to defend Salamis or withdraw further and defend the Isthmus of Corinth ensues. The Persians,…

“ITS RELIABILITY, STRENGTH, AND ALL-ROUND ABILITIES LED TO ITS CONTINUED SERVICE IN THE FLEDGLING ROYAL AIR FORCE” Introduced in 1917, the Bristol F.2 Fighter got off to rocky start with Britain’s Royal Flying Corps (RFC), and early models were plagued with engine trouble. However, once fitted with the Rolls Royce Falcon the F.2b proved to be one of the most outstanding aircraft of the First World War. As a two-seater it could carry out bombing, photographic reconnaissance and ground attack operations with speed and ease, but it also had the agility of a true fighter and could dogfight with the best. In the summer of 1917, this was just the aircraft the RFC needed to regain air superiority over the Western Front, where it gained the affectionate nickname of the…

WAR THUNDER Next Gen free MMO Combat Game www.warthunder.com/fly Join now and take part in major battles on land, in the air and at sea, fighting with millions of players from all over the world in an ever-evolving environment. In War Thunder, aircraft, attack helicopters, ground forces and naval ships collaborate in realistic competitive battles. You can choose from over 1,700 historical vehicles and an extensive variety of combat situations. CORGI MILITARY LEGENDS 1:50 scale Churchill MkIII Tank – 6th Scots Guards Brigade 1943 RRP: £49.99 For over 60 years Corgi has prided itself on bringing the highest quality die-cast metal models to the market. Military Legends is a new range from the British Brand which showcases the multitude of vehicles that went to war including military support vehicles alongside…

DORNIER DO 17 THE DO 17 EXCELLED IN LOW-LEVEL BOMBING, BUT THAT ADVANTAGE WAS TAKEN AWAY WITH A LUFTWAFFE STRATEGIC SWITCH Nicknamed the ‘Flying Pencil’ due to its tapered fuselage, the Dornier Do 17 medium bomber entered Luftwaffe mass production early. With a crew of four or five, its maximum bomb load was 998kg (2,200 pounds). Correcting design flaws that were revealed during the Spanish Civil War, the Do 17U variant was deployed throughout the Battle of Britain. The Do 17 performed well at low altitude during the early days of the Battle of Britain, delivering its bombs accurately in attacks on RAF airfields and Chain Home radar sites. However, that advantage was neutralised when Luftwaffe strategy changed to bombing cities. Do 17 losses during the Battle of Britain are…

“REDEVELOPERS TORE DOWN HISTORIC BUILDINGS TO MAKE WAY FOR A RING ROAD SO THE LOSS OF HISTORIC COVENTRY WAS NOT ENTIRELY DOWN TO THE LUFTWAFFE” Unlike many other British industrial cities, Coventry had an ancient core with a distinguished past. It had been the fourth-wealthiest English city during the Late Middle Ages and hosted several parliaments in the 15th century. Its regional importance was reflected in its architecture and many of its Medieval and Tudor buildings survived into the 20th century. Before WWII, Coventry’s city centre was like a Midlands version of York with many half-timbered houses, narrow streets and its large 14th century cathedral. However, contrary to popular perception, the destruction of Coventry’s heritage began before the war. During the 18th-19th centuries its ancient city gates were dismantled while…

When the Luftwaffe abandoned its daylight attacks against airfields, aircraft factories and other parts of Britain’s defence infrastructure in early September 1940, turning instead against London and other cities, it was of course a relief to a beleaguered RAF Fighter Command. Yet at the same time, it was something of a bittersweet moment. While the pressure was off the fighter defences, those same defences stood all but powerless to stop the night attacks – at least in any meaningful manner. Part of the problem lay in the fact that RAF Fighter Command had been very much geared-up as a day fighter force, with relatively scant attention paid to the question of night-time defence. In any event, pre-war preparations for the air defence of Britain were largely predicated on the notion…

The expected holiday truce was suddenly shattered. Thousands of North Vietnamese troops and Viet Cong insurgents launched attacks across South Vietnam in the predawn hours of 31 January 1968. The communist onslaught coincided with Tet, the Vietnamese Lunar New Year celebration, and has become known to history as the Tet Offensive – a turning point in the Vietnam War. A focus of the coordinated enemy attacks was the provincial capital city of Hue in central Vietnam on the banks of the Perfume River. A cultural centre, Hue was well known for its 19th-century walled citadel and moat, which surrounded the Imperial City and its cluster of palaces and shrines. When the storm of the Tet Offensive broke, the communists seized Hue and immediately began slaughtering local officials, members of the…

BON BOMBS FOR THE NAZIS Prior to leaving for their objectives, pilots and crews have their Xmas pudding and celebrate the Yuletide in the customary manner and then prepare ‘Axis’ presents for Hitler. OPERATION COMPASS On 9 December the first British offensive of the war began in Egypt, with the aim of driving out occupying Italian 10th Army. British, Indian and Commonwealth forces contributed to the offensive which started by outflanking and cutting off Italian positions around Sidi Barrani. In just three days over 38,000 Italian troops were captured, along with over 70 tanks. Allied forces continued to advance towards the Halyfa Pass near the Libyan border and crossed into Libya on the 13 December, pursuing the retreating Italian forces. FIGHTBACK IN ALBANIA While Mussolini’s North African front continued to…

WATERLOO A FASCINATING SOCIAL HISTORY OF A PIVOTAL BATTLE Author: Alan Forrest Publisher: Folio Society Price: £39.95 As Alan Forrest makes clear in his introduction to this book, he is not a military historian and that’s precisely why this deep dive into the Battle of Waterloo is so fascinating and rich. Rather than being caught up on the microcosm of events on 18 June 1815, Forrest looks to paint a broader and multinational picture. This is not just the story of Napoleon facing off against the Duke of Wellington (although both are given prominent amounts of ink as their contribution would demand), but of many nations, each with their own reasons for being in Belgium on this day, bringing about a final defeat for a would-be emperor. The battle itself…

CHRISTMAS MAIL Taken: c. 1899-1902 Soldiers at Camp De Aar, Cape Colony (present-day South Africa), sort through Christmas mail, during the Second Anglo-Boer War. Field Marshal Lord Frederick Roberts, C-in-C of British forces, began his march to relieve the Siege of Kimberley during the winter of 1899-1900, travelling through De Aar en route. After relieving Kimberley, Roberts began an offensive in the Transvaal, culminating in the Battle of Diamond Hill. THE CAMPAIGN OF FRANCE Painted: 1864 Napoleon and his staff are depicted returning from Soissons after the Battle of Laon, March 1814, in which he was defeated by Gebhard von Blucher’s Prussian army. The War of the Sixth Coalition was the final campaign before Napoleon’s first defeat and exile. By the end of the month, coalition forces were at the…

BETTY QUINN THE TEENAGE AMBULANCE CADET FROM COVENTRY WHO WAS AWARDED THE GEORGE MEDAL A 17-year old stores clerk from Coventry, Quinn was also a volunteer St John Ambulance cadet. On 19 October 1940, she was administering first aid at an ARP post when incendiary bombs suddenly fell nearby in the city. The Coventry Standard newspaper reported that Quinn helped people without any assistance, which initially included assisting a man into a shelter. However, the situation escalated, “An Anderson shelter received a direct hit and she ran through a rain of bombs and commenced digging with a spade.” Quinn dug out seven people and attended to their injuries before returning to the ARP post to assist distressed people. She remained with the injured civilians until the last person had been…

“500 TONS OF HIGH EXPLOSIVES, 30,000 INCENDIARY BOMBS AND 50 LANDMINES WERE DROPPED IN THE SINGLE MOST CONCENTRATED ATTACK ON A BRITISH CITY DURING WWII” On a clear night during 14-15 November 1940, almost 500 Luftwaffe aircraft conducted an unprecedented bombing raid against the English city of Coventry. Codenamed ‘Moonlight Sonata’, the raid lasted for 11 hours with the aim of destroying the city’s substantial war production industries. Around 500 tons of high explosives, 30,000 incendiary bombs and 50 landmines were dropped in the single most concentrated attack on a British city during WWII. Approximately 568 people were killed and over 1,000 injured but Coventry’s biggest loss was material. More than 43,000 homes, which was just over 50 percent of the city’s housing stock, were destroyed or damaged while the…

In the summer of 480 BCE, the Persian King Xerxes I invaded mainland Greece with a massive army rumoured to number five million men and with 1,200 warships. No one today believes those numbers, but the invasion was the largest Greece had ever seen. Ostensibly, it was to punish two Greek cities, Athens and Eretria, for their part in a revolt of Persian vassal states in Ionia 15 years earlier. The resources brought to bear, however, reveal that the conquest of Greece was Xerxes’s real intention, adding it to his western provinces. This quest would reach its climax at the Battle of Salamis. As the Persians advanced across the Hellespont and down through Greece, they reached the pass of Thermopylae by land and Artemisium by sea. There the Greeks planned…

The word ‘chivalry’ conjures ideas of warriors fighting bravely and acting courteously. However, this is an oversimplification and belies the roots from which it came. Knights regarded war as normal and it was seen as part of the established order of things; it righted wrongs and if it resulted in bad things, it was because of false usage. When it first emerged in France, ‘chivalry’ simply referred to horsemanship, from the French word ‘cheval’ for a horse. The knights who fought for their lords in feudal Europe were tough mounted soldiers, richer than most because they owned warhorses and wore better armour. Many followed Duke William of Normandy to England in 1066 to carve out a new kingdom. “THE NOTIONS OF WHAT WE THINK OF AS SERIOUS COURTLY LOVE WOULD…

1492 was a hugely significant year in the history of Spain with both the successful voyage of Christopher Columbus across the Atlantic Ocean and the fall of the last Muslim Iberian stronghold at Granada. Emir Muhammad XII of the Nasrid dynasty was the ruler of Granada at this time and his predecessors had previously dominated southern Spain since 1230. By 1492, Muhammad only ruled the city of Granada itself and the emirate had been fighting the encroaching Christian kingdoms of Aragon and Castile for ten years. When Muhammad surrendered Granada to Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon on 2 January 1492, the Christian ‘Reconquista’ of Spain was complete. The victorious Christian kingdoms presented the fall of Granada as a triumph of one world over another but late…