Innholdsfortegnelse for No. 61 i History of War

This November marks the final milestone of the centenary years of World War I. Over four years of warfare on a previously unthinkable scale had ended with the signing of the Armistice in the early hours, in a small train carriage, a century ago. It was peace at last, ‘never again’, ‘the war to end all wars’, and so on. As Dr Jonathan Krause explains in this issue’s cover feature, history is far more complex than this neat ending. In the aftermath of WWI, new regimes and states battled for dominance across the world. Far from a lasting peace, this so-called ‘inter-war’ period – Foch’s correctly predicted ‘20 years armistice’ – resulted in yet more bloodshed and carnage. SIGN UP TO THE HISTORY OF WAR NEWSLETTER FOR ISSUE PREVIEWS &…

POLISH-SOVIET WAR POLAND 1919 – 1921 One of a series of border-setting wars in Eastern Europe, the Polish-Soviet War was in many ways the most dramatic. Starting on the back of the Polish-Ukrainian War of 1919, which saw Poland successfully push its borders eastward while the diplomats in Paris were still debating the future of the world, the Polish-Soviet War nearly saw the Soviets create an Eastern Europe similar to the one that would exist after 1945. The introduction of French arms, including Renault FT-17 tanks (creating the first ever Polish armoured units), helped turn the tide of the war after initial Soviet successes, securing the survival of the Polish state, at least until 1939. THE SENUSSI WAR SOUTHERN LIBYA 1914 – 1920 In 1914 the Senussi, a sect of…

It is only possible to pretend that one war is good until the next war comes along. I still treasure my great uncle’s 1914-1918 medal (he was at Jutland) inscribed with the words, “The Great War for Civilisation”. In more elevated moments, those who survived it liked to dignify the Flanders slaughter as ‘The war to end war’. After all, if it really had ended war, then it might just have been worth it. But how quickly all that came apart. As a child, I used to love the terse, graphic stories of ‘Gun Buster’ about the British Expeditionary Force’s retreat to Dunkirk. This shocking, disturbing event was seen through the eyes of artillery officers and was plainly autobiographical. The most poignant concerned a young captain trying to hold the…

“THE HELMET IS SPECIFICALLY DESIGNED FOR CAVALRY USE WITH NARROW EYE SLITS AND DOWNWARD-FACING HOLES” Roman influence in Syria began in 64 BCE, and the province was eventually garrisoned with three legions and auxiliary units. In common with other parts of the empire, many local rulers became Romanised, including the Emesani dynasty of priest-kings at Emesa, which is now modern-day Homs. Emesa had a long history of imperial cooperation and its soldiers had assisted Julius Caesar at the Siege of Alexandria in 41 BCE and also fought alongside Roman forces at the Siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE. Some sense of Emesani wealth can be seen in this distinctive cavalry helmet, which was discovered in 1936. Known as the ‘Emesa Helmet’, the headpiece is predominantly made of iron but with…

1 BATTLE OF KRÜCKEN 29 NOVEMBER 1249 KAMENKA, KALININGRAD OBLAST Marshal Heinrich Botel leads Teutonic knights in pillaging the lands of the pagan Natangians (Prussians). The knights surrender after being surrounded at Krücken, but 54 are massacred in cold blood. The Teutonic Order never surrenders to pagans again. “THE KNIGHTS SURRENDER AFTER BEING SURROUNDED AT KRÜCKEN, BUT 54 ARE MASSACRED IN COLD BLOOD. THE TEUTONIC ORDER NEVER SURRENDERS TO PAGANS AGAIN” 2 BATTLE OF DURBE 13 JULY 1260 DURBE, LATVIA Outnumbered Samogitian Lithuanians defeat a combined force of knights from the Teutonic and Livonian Orders. 150 knights are killed, including the Livonian master, in one of the Order's largest defeats of the 13th century. 3 SIEGE OF KÖNIGSBERG 1262-65 KALININGRAD, KALININGRAD OBLAST Pagan Prussians besiege the important Teutonic stronghold of…

History has largely held that the Teutonic Order was dealt a fatal blow at Grunwald in 1410. Its defeat, however, was followed by more than a century of decline, culminating in the transformation of Prussia into a secular state, so the truth is a bit more complex. The view that Grunwald spelled the end of the Order tends to overlook the surprising resilience of the knights in the wake of their defeat, which was without doubt grievous. Some 200 knights and thousands of infantrymen had perished in the battle. Much of the subsequent staying power of the knights was due to the efforts of Heinrich von Plauen, who would soon become the new grand master of the Order. Von Plauen managed, in the months following the battle, something that would…

“THE NEAT, HAPPY ENDING OF WORLD WAR I WAS ANYTHING BUT FOR PEOPLE ALL OVER THE WORLD” Down through the generations, the familiar story told of the Great War is retold time and time again. Unfortunately, the neat, happy ending of World War I was anything but for people all over the world. Across Eastern Europe and the Middle East fighting continued, on and off, well into the 1920s, as actors on the ground sought to either enforce the political agreements made at the end of the war, or to overturn or influence decisions they felt were unfavourable to them. Here, we look at a handful of conflicts in the post-war period, reminding us that the end of one war too often simply sets the scene for the next one.…

When the United States began its conquest of the Philippine Islands in 1899, among the more curious spoils taken from Spain’s former colonial possession was a rocky islet with a small fort. Situated at the mouth of Manila Bay, no ship could approach the Philippine capital without falling under its gaze. At least this was Corregidor’s intended function. When Commodore George Dewey’s squadron of battleships annihilated the Spanish navy off Manila in 1898, for example, Corregidor failed to alert the coastal defences in nearby Cavite of the intruders’ presence. Still, the new American administration that governed the Philippines embraced the idea of an impregnable fortress and poured funds into rehabilitating Corregidor. But as the work dragged on for years the rationale behind Corregidor’s purpose seemed stuck in the past. At…

“THE FR.9 WAS INTENDED TO REPLACE THE SUPERMARINE SPITFIRE FR.18, AS THE RAF MOVED TOWARDS AN ALL-JET FRONT LINE” CRAMPED COCKPIT The cockpit of the Meteor was cramped and crowded. Ejecting could be hazardous, with lots of ways to get cut or even break bones. NOSE SECTION The only major design change in the FR.9 was the camera compartment, with multiple windows for aiming the equipment. OLD-FASHION DESIGN The Meteor was unimaginative in design, without the radical lines of some contemporary jet aircraft. However, this sped up testing and production. SIMPLE BUT EFFECTIVE AIRFRAME The Meteor’s classic monocoque airframe was old-fashioned in some ways, but it was simple, easy to produce and versatile. The Gloster Meteor FR.9 was one of the final versions of the RAF’s first jet fighter, which…

The UK was frequently beleaguered during WWII, but it was fully supported by considerable manpower from the British Empire. Thousands of volunteers from the Caribbean colonies alone travelled to Britain to assist the war effort, including over 100 women who served in the Women’s Auxiliary Air Force and Auxiliary Territorial Service. Many Caribbean volunteers served in the RAF in roles that ranged from fighter pilots, bomber crewmen, ground staff, administration or seaborne roles. A total of 103 of these RAF personnel received awards for bravery. The naval contribution was also significant, with thousands serving in the Royal Navy or, most dangerously, the British Merchant Navy, where the death rate was proportionally higher than the armed forces. In the British Army, skilled West Indian technicians served in the Royal Engineers while…

BRISTOL’S TRIBUTE TO THE FALLEN THE COMMONWEALTH WAR GRAVES COMMISSION IS CURRENTLY RUNNING A PHOTOGRAPHIC EXHIBITION, ‘AT THE GOING DOWN OF THE SUN’, TO COMMEMORATE THE LOCAL CASUALTIES OF THE TWO WORLD WARS The Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC) is an intergovernmental organisation of six independent member states. Its principal function is to mark, record and maintain the graves and commemorative places of the 1.7 million Commonwealth military personnel who died during the two world wars. ‘At the Going Down of the Sun’ is a photography exhibition commissioned by the CWGC that remembers people who lost their lives in conflict over the last 104 years. With its title inspired by the famous remembrance poem written by Laurence Binyon, the exhibition specifically commemorates the 100th anniversary of the end of World…

Author: Annie Whitehead Publisher: Amberley Publishing Price: £20.00 Mercia was one of the key Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. In the 9th century, when the Great Heathen Army came within a whisker of making England a Norse nation, Mercia was one of the four kingdoms (along with Wessex, Northumbria and East Anglia) that were facing the Vikings. Alfred and Wessex get all the credit for the defeat of the Vikings, but Mercia deserves a major share of the credit for the saving of England before England had really been invented. But where Northumbria had Bede, Wessex the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, and East Anglia the silent witness of the magnificent finds at Sutton Hoo, Mercia remains silent. Its history is told only in charters, and the witness of its rivals and enemies. Annie Whitehead’s book…

WAITING FOR THE 11TH HOUR Taken: 11 November 1918 Irish Guardsmen appear relaxed in their position, with five minutes left before the Armistice that will bring an end to World War I comes into effect. Although the conditions of the Armistice were signed at 5am earlier that day, six hours were allowed in order to spread the word across the frontline that the ceasefire had been agreed. THE FALLEN AT TYNE COT Taken: 28 May 2008 ‘Tyne Cot’ was the name given by the Northumberland Fusiliers to a barn that stood on the road to Passchendaele. It is the largest Commonwealth war cemetery in the world, with over 11,900 servicemen of WWI buried or commemorated here. 8,370 of the burials are as yet unidentified, and there are four German burials,…

During the 13th century, medieval Russia was a myriad of republics and principalities that were vulnerable to Mongol or European invasions. One of the most attacked was the Republic of Novgorod, which was predominantly inhabited by Orthodox Christians. The citizens of the city of Novgorod had the unusually advanced democratic right to elect a prince. This leader, who was usually chosen from outside the republic, acted as a military commander, and in 1236 the citizens elected Prince Alexander of Vladimir. In 1240, Sweden invaded Novgorod but Alexander defeated them at the Battle of the Neva. This victory earned him the sobriquet of ‘Nevsky’ (meaning ‘of the Neva’) and the prince would be known afterwards as ‘Alexander Nevsky’. The victory at Neva enhanced Alexander’s reputation, but he intervened in domestic affairs…

The Paris Peace Conference was the primary means by which politicians sought to reshape the world after the end of World War I. It was a chance for powers that felt they had been marginalised to assert their independence, and an opportunity for imperial powers to further extend their global influence. This fundamental contraction caused significant problems for many of the key geographical areas the diplomats in Paris needed to address. While many could agree to the basic justice of United States President Woodrow Wilson’s call for ‘national self-determination’, the actual implementation of this ideal – the creation of a bunch of new nation-states – was enormously complex. How would one determine new national borders? Was it to be based on where ethnic or linguistic populations happened to currently be…

01 THE PERILOUS PEAKS With the Japanese 14th Army steam-rolling down the plains of Central Luzon in late December, War Plan Orange comes into effect and the Bataan Peninsula is fortified, with its mountains serving as natural barriers. 02 CORREGIDOR HQ On 23 December General MacArthur decides to abandon Manila and relocate USAFFE’s HQ to Corregidor. The underground bunkers in the Malinta Tunnel serve as the command and control nexus for General Wainwright’s orchestration of the battle for Bataan. 03 MAIN BATTLE POSITION The defence-in-depth strategy for Bataan involves layers of trenches. The main battle position immediately comes under attack on 6 January, but General Homma’s exhausted forces are repulsed. The main battle position’s ‘wings’ would finally collapse by 4 April. 04 REAR BATTLE POSITION The secondary defensive layer, or…

The Meteor FR.9 first flew on 22 March 1950. By the end of the year the type entered service with No. 2 Squadron in Germany, followed by No. 208 Squadron in Egypt. In December 1951 No. 79 Squadron, also in Germany, received FR.9s, and the last frontline squadron to fly them, No. 8 Squadron in Aden, received them in 1958. Pilots trained at No. 226 Operational Conversion Unit. The speed of introduction was due to the fact the aircraft only had minor modifications from the Meteor F.8 fighter, which would see combat with the RAAF over Korea. Indeed, during the 1956 Suez Crisis No. 208 Squadron’s FR.9s acted as fighters defending Cyprus, although without seeing action. The type gave particularly useful service in the Persian Gulf, where the British were…

“DIRTY, LOUSY, STINKING, UNSHAVEN, UNKEMPT. WHERE WERE THE BANNERS, THE TRUMPETS, THE DRUMS, THE POMP, THE BOMBAST, THE GLORY?” Howard Palmer enlisted in August 1914, signing up with the Territorial Force, East Coast Defences, but later joined the Royal Garrison Artillery. He served through both world wars and lived to write his memoirs. He survived the Somme, Ypres and even the Spring Offensive in 1918, when he was returned to England as a casualty. But by the November, he was about to be sent to Mesopotamia, and after the Armistice he was posted to Salonika and Constantinople. The following is an excerpt from his memoirs, kindly provided by his great-niece, Hilary Jones. To find out more go to: www.facebook.com/akindofsoldiering “It seemed more like spring than winter, for there…

Author: Max Hastings Publisher: William Collins Price: £30.00 As a piece of fiction, it would have been dismissed as an unworkable fantasy. 30 years of battlefield conflict, the longest war of the 20th century, sees two major, industrialised nuclear powers brought to their knees by guerrilla fighters in a Southeast Asian country the size of California. Yet it happened, and Max Hastings narrates the 1945-1975 French and US intervention in Vietnam in a book that is likely to stand as the definitive chronicle of this event, which cost the lives of 3 million people on all sides. The author has researched archival material and a wealth of secondary sources, and he also draws from his own experiences as a reporter in the US during the war and an evacuee taken…