Innholdsfortegnelse for No. 56 i History of War

“The enemy opened a fire of musketry from a windmill on a rising ground… however, a rapid advance of the Riflemen drew the French from all points of the posts” – Lieutenant John Cox, 95th Rifles, on the Battle of Obidos They were the inspiration for Bernard Cornwell’s heroic ‘Chosen Men’ in the Sharpe series, but who were the real soldiers of the 95th Rifles? From their green jackets to their trusty Baker Rifles, the men of the regiment were part of a new breed of light infantry. With some effort at camouflage, and weapons with greater accuracy, they made a huge impact on the Peninsular War, building on many tactics and techniques used against the British during the American War of Independence. This issue, we’re thrilled to have on…

BARON PYOTR NIKOLAYEVICH WRANGEL NICKNAMED ‘THE BLACK BARON’ BY THE BOLSHEVIKS, WRANGEL SHOT TO FAME IN 1919, FIRST AS A CAVALRY COMMANDER THEN AS THE LEADER OF THE LAST SERIOUS MILITARY OPPOSITION TO THE BOLSHEVIK REGIME IN 1920 Wrangel was born into an aristocratic Baltic-German family that had served the Russian monarchy for centuries. He was educated and spent much of his youth in Rostov-on-Don, qualifying as a mining engineer in 1901. Volunteering for military service the same year, he joined the elite Life Guard Cavalry Regiment. When war with Japan broke out in 1904, Wrangel volunteered for active service and joined a local Cossack regiment as a junior officer. He was decorated for bravery and decided to follow a military career, re-joining the Life Guard Cavalry Regiment. He remained…

“GENGHIS BELIEVED HE HAD A DIVINE MISSION TO UNITE ALL OF THE MONGOL PEOPLES, AND THIS MISSION EVENTUALLY EXPANDED TO INCLUDE THE WHOLE OF THE WORLD” The figure of Genghis Khan of the Mongols looms like a colossus over the whole history of the Middles Ages, in both the east and west. With an army that displayed unsurpassed mobility and tight coordination, he established one of the largest land empires ever, conquering vast territories in a short space of time. His empire also proved durable, being able to survive his death and division among his heirs for some two centuries or more in places. Genghis’s beginnings hardly boded well for the future world conqueror. Born around 1162 and called Temujin in his youth, at the age of 12 he became…

“IN WHAT PROVED THE MOST INTENSE FIGHTING IN EAST AFRICA SINCE WWII, THE ETHIOPIANS SOUGHT TO DRIVE AWAY THE ENTRENCHED ERITREANS WITH SOVIET-VINTAGE TANKS AND ARTILLERY, BUT THESE EFFORTS WERE BLUNTED BY DETERMINED RESISTANCE” The 1990s offered little respite for Africa, with bloodshed and disorder carving a destructive path from Freetown to Mogadishu. As the decade neared its end one of the continent’s youngest states was proving to be a difficult neighbour. Eritrea gained its independence in 1993 after 32 years of struggle against Ethiopia, which had itself almost collapsed following the overthrow of its Soviet-backed Marxist Derg regime in 1985 and the subsequent internal conflicts that followed. When Eritrea’s tough freedom fighters, clad in their iconic leather sandals, seized the colonial city of Asmara in 1991, a new state…

As the defeated attackers fled away from the Maori defences at Gate Pa, surprised at the ferocity of the defenders’ counterattack, Assistant Surgeon William Manley made his way in the opposite direction, back into the pa (a Maori fort or fortified settlement). Having attended to the mortally wounded commander of the force, Manley returned to the body-strewn defences to find more wounded. The New Zealand Wars were a series of conflicts fought by British and colonial troops against various Maori tribes between 1845 and 1872. 15 Victoria Crosses were awarded during the wars. Initially they were localised land disputes with individual Maori tribes and the colonial New Zealand government. By the 1860s, however, 10,000 British troops were requested by the new governor of New Zealand, Sir George Grey. These were…

“EACH OF THESE COURAGEOUS WOMEN KNEW THAT TORTURE AND DEATH WAS THE PRICE OF FAILURE” In World War I women were almost exclusively a feature of the home front, knitting jumpers and socks for their husbands and sons off in the trenches or working on the assembly line in munitions and other factories. But less than a generation later, in the next global conflagration, a number of women took on quite a different role – not as frontline troops but in the equally perilous guise as secret operatives working behind enemy lines. Two decades after WWI, a corps of daring American and British women had abandoned the security of their homes for the shadowy world of espionage and sabotage. They were recruited by the US’s Office of Strategic Services (OSS)…

TOM GARNER Tom spoke with prestigious war reporter Martin Bell this month. He discusses his time serving in the British Army during the Cyprus Emergency, and his subsequent career reporting from the frontline of major conflict zones (page 66). MARC DESANTIS This month Marc delivers a blow-by-blow of one of the Golden Horde’s greatest victories – Kalka River. He describes how Mongol general Subutai led a raid through Medieval Russia, and the grisly aftermath of his victory (page 46). MIGUEL MIRANDA The border war between Eritrea and Ethiopia was one of the 20th century’s last major conflicts, officially ending in 2000. However, Miguel takes a look at how this bitter African feud still flares up and threatens further bloodshed (page 54).…

Thomas Plunkett, described as “a bold, active, athletic Irishman, and a deadly shot,” joined the 95th Rifles in 1805. He first made a name for himself during the British invasion Buenos Aires in 1807, during which he showed his prowess as a proficient marksman, reportedly shooting every enemy who showed his face. However, his most famous moment would come in the Iberian Peninsula in 1808. With the British army in full retreat, the 95th Rifles provided a rearguard, under constant attack from the French. While engaged against cavalry at Cacabelos, Plunkett is credited with shooting the enemy cavalry commander, General Colbert, following up with the swift dispatch of Colbert’s aide-de-camp. The circumstances surrounding this famous shot are murky, as no first-hand account of Plunkett’s shot exists, and the memoirs that…

“THE MONGOL WAY OF WAR WAS A POTENT COMBINATION THAT PROVED IRRESISTIBLE FOR MANY YEARS” Subotai had at his command the perfect force with which to mount this daring raid. The Mongol army of Genghis’s day was without doubt one of the most formidable in the history of the world. Its might owed much to its tactical and strategic coordination. The Mongols carefully organised their horsemen into mingghans, or regiments, of 1,000 men and, at Genghis's own direction, into much larger tumens, or corps, of 10,000 men. Coordination of these units, even when separated by long distances, was impeccable. Mongol battle tactics were in line with standard methods of warfare practiced by Eurasian steppe nomads for many centuries. Most Mongol warriors were horse archers, being only lightly equipped, bearing just…

“IT WAS DIFFICULT TO ASCERTAIN THE WAR’S DEFINITIVE OUTCOME BEYOND THE HYSTERICAL PROPAGANDA SPREAD BY THE BELLIGERENTS” To this day it remains unclear if the conflict should be called the ‘Eritrean-Ethiopian War’ or vice versa. Which country emerged victorious is still unclear. With press access tightly controlled before the UN finally forced a ceasefire and a peace treaty, it was difficult to ascertain the war’s definitive outcome beyond the hysterical propaganda spread by the belligerents. An even thornier issue is accurate figures for losses on both sides. The Eritreans never hesitated to publicise the immense casualties they inflicted on the Ethiopians during battles from 1998-1999. But the Ethiopian military also insisted Eritrean manpower was so depleted that their border defences almost collapsed. The UN reports that the war killed 80,000-100,000…

“IT IS A FORGOTTEN STORY OF MILITARY INCOMPETENCE, SHAMEFUL COVER-UPS AND A UNIQUE GLIMPSE INTO AN EMPIRE ON THE BRINK OF COLLAPSE” “THERE WAS DEFINITELY A PECKING ORDER DEPENDING ON HOW LONG YOU HAD BEEN ON CYPRUS AND WHETHER YOU’D ‘GOT YOUR KNEES BROWN’” The Cyprus Emergency was one of the biggest military operations by the British armed forces since 1945. 35,000 British soldiers were stationed in Cyprus between 1955-59 to defeat a guerrilla insurgency whose numbers could be counted in their hundreds. Although war was never officially declared, the ‘Emergency’ was a bitter conflict between the colonial authorities and armed Greek Cypriot nationalists (known as ‘EOKA’) who wanted self-determination and union with Greece. The Emergency turned Cyprus into a warzone, and the British introduced unpopular military policies to counter…

TWO-WHEELED BLITZKRIEG No other combatant nation employed bicycles and motorcycles on such a large scale as the Third Reich. As part of Germany’s arsenal, motorcycles and bicycles served a variety of functions – couriers, reconnaissance, medical evacuation, for delivering hot meals to the front line, as assault shock troops, and even as tank destroyers. As Germany’s military planned to spread the Nazi domain by fire and steel, numerous bicycle brands and over 300 different makes of motorcycles were already in production, yet only a select few were chosen by the Wehrmacht in its war of conquest. Among those motorcycles were the vaunted BMW and the now lesser-known yet ‘bullet tough’ DKW, NSU and Zündapp, among several others. PEDALLING TO WAR The advantage of bicycles lay in their stealthy, almost silent…

‘WHEN THE SWORD IS ONCE DRAWN, THE PASSIONS OF MEN OBSERVE NO BOUNDS OF MODERATION” American Historian Gerald J. Meyer’s account of the start of World War I has been released at a most auspicious moment, as the centenary of the armistice that ended the Great War draws near. This is the first of two volumes covering the 1914-1918 conflict. Meyer’s first foray into the war, The World Remade, was the account of America’s epoch-defining involvement in the Great War. Now, in his scholarly yet entertaining style, Meyer offers the reader a story rich with fresh insights into the key issues, events and personalities of the period. He explains in rich detail what happened on that summer day in 1914, when a 19-year-old Serbian nationalist gunned down Archduke Franz Ferdinand…

“WITHOUT THIS GERMANY COULD NEVER HAVE DECLARED WAR AND INVADED FRANCE IN 1914.” Countless books and articles have explored the life of Napoleon Bonaparte, but few authors and researchers have examined his nephew’s legacy. Napoléon le Petit has been dismissed by historians until recently. Shadowed by his uncle, he is widely remembered as an authoritarian mediocrity, a man who lacked flair and intelligence. This reputation is not new; the French opposition had already mocked his personality, affairs and adventurous life long before the Battle of Sedan. In this new biography, Alan Strauss-Schom offers a fresh and nuanced perspective. The young Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte is presented as a melancholic figure, a man deeply influenced by his loving but suffocating mother and his excessively strict father. Living the first years of his life…

This special collection of six titles includes thrilling stories from across the RAF’s long history, such as Going Solo, Roald Dahl’s much-loved account of flying – and crashing – during the North Africa campaign. Immediate Response, by Chinook helicopter pilot Major Mark Hammond, gives a gripping account from much more recent operations, flying under heavy fire in Afghanistan. The collection is available now in paperback, individually priced £7.99 – visit www.penguin.co.uk for more information. This issue, History of War has a complete set of the RAF Centenary Collection to give away to one lucky winner.…

Trench warfare was a terrifyingly modern experience for soldiers in WWI. In 1914 Britain’s regular army only numbered around 100,000 men, but during the war these soldiers were largely replaced by millions of civilian volunteers and conscripts who needed to be rapidly transformed into fighting men. The result was a plethora of hastily produced but accessible guides to soldiering, including this fascinating instruction booklet. Measuring only 6.5cm x 10.3cm (2.6 x 4in) and containing 62 thin pages, The Soldiers’ Companion could easily fit into a British soldier’s breast pocket. The booklet provides military definitions and diagrams to help the average ‘Tommy’ fight and survive. Definitions include military terminology, abbreviations and rifle instructions, as well as a list of useful French phrases. The most appealing parts of the booklet are the…

Unlike line infantry, Spanish light infantry operated as single battalion units, and consisted of six enlarged companies of 206 men. Known as cazadores, which translates as hunters, they were armed with a musket, rather than a rifle, and bayonet, and thus could not replicate the range or accuracy of Baker-equipped riflemen. From 1805 light infantry uniforms reflected the blue-coated line infantry of the Spanish army, the only difference being the green plume on their bicorne. This uniform was not universally liked, impeding the soldier with its long tailcoat, sabre and stiff cravat, which limited movement and agility. French skirmishers were known as voltigeurs, or ‘vaulters’ in English, because originally it was theorised that these men would jump onto the backs of horses to enable greater speed of movement. This quickly…

ARIELLI, NIR. FROM BYRON TO BIN LADEN: A HISTORY OF FOREIGN WAR VOLUNTEERS. CAMBRIDGE: HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS, 2017 CLARK, WALLING N. “GRANDSONS OF GARIBALDI IN THE FRENCH ARMY.” THE CHRISTIAN ADVOCATE 90 (JANUARY 14, 1915): 55 FREEMAN, LEWIS. R. “THE GARIBALDI TAKE THE COL DI LANA.” THE WORLD’S WORK 34 (MAY-OCTOBER 1917): 177-188 LEPAGE, JEAN-DENIS G. G. THE FRENCH FOREIGN LEGION: AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY. MCFARLAND, 2007 NICOLE, DAVID. THE ITALIAN ARMY OF WORLD WAR I. OXFORD: OSPREY, 2003…

“EOKA OPERATIVES NEVER NUMBERED MORE THAN 200-300 GUERRILLAS, BUT THEY WERE DETERMINED FIGHTERS WHO WARNED THE BRITISH, ‘THE MORE TROOPS YOU BRING TO THE ISLAND, THE GREATER YOUR LOSSES WILL BE’” Cyprus had been ruled by Britain since 1878, first as a protectorate and then as a crown colony from 1925. The island was of great strategic value to the British in the eastern Mediterranean but, like many colonies after WWII, the Cypriots began to push for independence. Greek Cypriots made up 80 per cent of the population at that time, and in 1950 the Greek Orthodox Church organised a referendum on Enosis (unification with Greece). 95.7 per cent of Greek Cypriots voted for Enosis but Turkish Cypriots (who made up 18 percent of the population) boycotted the referendum while…

“THE BRITISH DEEPLY STRUGGLE TO RECONCILE THE FACT THAT THEIR EMPIRE INEVITABLY DECLINED. AS SUCH, MOST BRITONS ARE UNAWARE OF THE DECOLONISATION PERIOD” The British have an ambiguous relationship with their imperial past. The effects of Britain’s global legacy are incalculable, and in this sense the memory of the British Empire can provoke a sense of awe. On the other hand, the British deeply struggle to reconcile the fact that their empire inevitably declined. As such, most Britons are unaware of the decolonisation period that lasted roughly from 1945-97. There is a feeling of subconscious forgetfulness about this period even though it is in living memory. This might be because the empire has a controversial status in Britain and that national successes are more palatable to remember than failures. Nevertheless,…