Innholdsfortegnelse for No. 53 i History of War

During the Wars of the Roses both sides had small artillery forces, and on the battlefield light field pieces were attached to infantry regiments. There were various sizes of guns, the most ideal being a ‘saker’. This fired a six-pound iron ball up to 2,300 metres (2,500 yards) and could fire case shot at close range. There were also ‘handguns’ that were similar to early muskets and even ‘ribauldequins’, which were multi-barrel weapons. Despite their power, the guns had slow loading times and limited accuracy, so their most fearsome asset was primarily psychological. Artillery played a unique part in several battles. At the Battle of Barnet, Warwick the Kingmaker continuously bombarded the Yorkists at night, but the resulting smoke contributed to dangerously foggy conditions during the battle the following day.…

“FOR ALL HIS HIGH WORDS ABOUT HIS JUST TITLE, IT WAS IN FACT AS SHAKY AS CAN BE WITHOUT BEING NON-EXISTENT. FROM THE START [HENRY VII] WAS THREATENED WITH PLOTS BY FRESH OPPONENTS. HE HAD TO COPE WITH ARMED UPRISINGS BY ENEMIES WHO WERE ALSO HIS SUBJECTS, SURVIVING WITH DIFFICULTY” Contemporary historian Polydore Vergil It is commonly assumed that the Battle of Bosworth was the decisive end of the Wars of the Roses. Richard III’s death was the end not just of the Yorkist dynasty but the line of Plantagenet kings who had ruled England since 1154. Henry VII’s battlefield coronation was a hugely symbolic act to celebrate the improbable rise of the Tudors. William Shakespeare had Thomas, Lord Stanley offer the crown with the words, “Wear it, enjoy it…

“THE FIRST OPERATIONAL MONOPLANE RAF FIGHTER, THE HURRICANE WAS ALSO THE FIRST SUCH AIRCRAFT TO EXCEED AN AIRSPEED OF 480 KILOMETRES PER HOUR” Although its legacy exists in the shadow of its RAF cohort, the Supermarine Spitfire, the Hawker Hurricane was the workhorse of Fighter Command early in World War II. At the beginning of the Battle of Britain, in late summer 1940, half the squadrons of Fighter Command were equipped with Hurricanes, while only 20 were flying the Spitfire. The remainder were assigned the inferior and vulnerable Boulton Paul Defiant. The Hurricane also wrote heroic chapters in the aerial defence of the island of Malta in the Mediterranean, in North Africa, and on the European continent, as the Nazi war machine invaded France and the Low Countries and the…

OPPOSING FORCES PATRIOTS LEADERS: William Campbell, Isaac Shelby, John Sevier, Joseph McDowell, Benjamin Cleveland, Joseph Winston, William Chronicle, James Williams PATRIOT MILITIA: c. 900 LOYALISTS LEADERS: Major Patrick Ferguson LOYALIST MILITIA AND REGULARS: c. 900 KINGS MOUNTAIN, SOUTH CAROLINA 7 OCTOBER 1780 It had been a bleak and unhappy 1779 for General Sir Henry Clinton, commander-in-chief of the British forces in North America, who wanted desperately to turn this troublesome conflict over to someone else and go home to England. Clinton insisted he needed two strong armies in America, not the one "pathetically small army" he actually had, but London had not heeded him, and his frustrations had swelled. But now he would strike a powerful blow against the colonial American rebels, or 'Patriots', as they called themselves. Sailing from…

On the night of 26 July 1942 an incongruous column of heavily armed jeeps bumped across the Libyan desert. There were 18 vehicles in all, commanded by Major David Stirling, the 26-year-old Scot who the previous July had convinced Middle East Command in Cairo to allow him to raise a 66-strong unit called L Detachment of the Special Air Service Brigade. Initially formed as a parachute unit, it had evolved into a guerrilla force that was transported to targets in the back of trucks driven by the Long Range Desert Group (LRDG). On this evening, however, the men were going it alone, directed to the isolated desert airfield of Sidi Haneish by Mike Sadler, a former LRDG navigator. It was the first time the SAS was operating independently of the…

A German Jew, Grierson was born in Nuremberg as Rolf Griessman. He served in the SAS during World War II after also serving in the Black Watch. During the Nazis’ rise to power his wealthy family had moved him to schools in Paris and eventually London. In 1940 Grierson was arrested in Shropshire and interned as a foreign national. He was cleared three months later and enlisted in the British Army. Parachute training with the Army Air Corps aided his transfer to the SAS, and he served in North Africa, Italy, France, Germany and Norway. In 1945, while serving with B Squadron SAS, he was wounded and captured. He was demobbed as a lieutenant colonel in 1946, but he was re-commissioned from 1948-1952 and joined the newly formed 21 SAS.…

The furious battle for air supremacy between the hugely outnumbered Royal Air Force (RAF) and Germany’s Luftwaffe has been glamorised in books and on screen over the decades. What Dennis Newton brings to the party is a meticulously-researched account of the life of one player in this drama, Flight Lieutenant Paterson ‘Pat’ Clarence Hughes, who at the outset of the Battle of Britain came to symbolise the fighting spirit of the Spitfire pilot. Hughes joined the Royal Australian Air Force as a cadet and took advantage of a scheme whereby Australian, New Zealand and Canadian pilots were offered a short-service commission in Britain. Following this, Hughes was accepted as an the RAF pilot in 1937. As a flight commander in 234 Squadron, Hughes scored his unit’s first victories during July…

“APPROXIMATELY 13,400 SLAVES WERE PURCHASED FOR THE REGIMENTS FROM SUGAR PLANTATIONS OR NEWLY ARRIVED SHIPS” In the late 18th century Britain was heavily involved in the transatlantic slave trade. Over 3.4 million enslaved Africans were transported to the Americas until 1807 in British ships, taken primarily to the Caribbean. As Britain’s empire grew, more soldiers were required to garrison its colonies, particularly during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. These conflicts spread to the West Indies, but the mortality rate of European soldiers based in the Caribbean was extremely high. Disease, rather than the enemy, killed 90 per cent of the British soldiers who died there between 1793-1815. In 1795 it was decided that West Indian regiments of black soldiers would be raised in the region, because it was believed…

1 BATTLE OF WAKEFIELD WAKEFIELD, WEST YORKSHIRE 30 DECEMBER 1460  Richard, Duke of York travels north to intercept a Lancastrian force in Yorkshire. The duke takes a defensive position at Sandal Castle outside Wakefield but suddenly leaves and attacks the numerically superior Lancastrian army. York is defeated and killed, which is a severe blow to the Yorkist cause. 2 BATTLE OF MORTIMER’S CROSS WIGMORE, HEREFORDSHIRE 2 FEBRUARY 1461  Edward, Earl of March succeeds his father as duke of York and moves to defeat a Lancastrian army in Wales. At Mortimer’s Cross, the largely mercenary Lancastrian army is routed by Edward, who proceeds to link up with his powerful ally Richard, Earl of Warwick. Edward is crowned Edward IV within two months. 3 BATTLE OF TOWTON TOWTON, NORTH YORKSHIRE 29 MARCH…

“VICTORY IN EUROPE COULD NOT HAVE BEEN ACHIEVED WITHOUT [BOMBER COMMAND’S] RELENTLESS EFFORTS TO DIVERT GERMAN FORCES TO DEFEND ITS AIRSPACE. FIELD MARSHAL ERWIN ROMMEL EVEN DESPAIRINGLY REMARKED, ‘STOP THE BOMBERS OR WE CAN’T WIN!’” The RAF’s bombing offensive against Nazi Germany was one of the longest, most expensive and most controversial of the Allied World War II campaigns. Its aim was to severely weaken Germany’s ability to fight, which was strategically vital for victory. This effort came at a huge price, with 55,573 airmen of Bomber Command losing their lives – a death rate of 44.4 per cent. The men were mostly very young and from many nationalities. For those who survived, Bomber Command’s reputation was widely debated in later years but victory in Europe could not have been…

“NOTWITHSTANDING THAT HE WAS NOW SEVERELY WOUNDED IN BOTH LEGS AND HIS LEFT ARM SHATTERED, [BARKER] DIVED ON THE NEAREST MACHINE AND SHOT IT DOWN IN FLAMES” William Barker’s VC citation The Royal Air Force was formed on 1 April 1918 as an amalgamation of the Royal Flying Corps (RFC) and Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS). It was a direct response to the rapid development of aircraft during World War I as a new, effective weapon in warfare. Pilots of the RFC and RNAS had become, through very hard lessons, extremely effective fighters in the sky against formidable enemy opposition. One of these airmen who epitomised the new fighting spirit of the RAF was William George ‘Billy’ Barker VC. He would become the most decorated serviceman in Canadian history. Barker…

“LUDENDORFF’S TASK IS MUCH MORE DIFFICULT THAN MINE. HE HAS TO BEAT ME, AND THAT HE CANNOT MANAGE” – Allied General-in-Chief Ferdinand Foch After ‘Operation Michael’ was halted in front of Amiens in early April 1918, General Erich Ludendorff would continue to rain blows on the Allied lines – four in all between April and mid-July. The first of these, ‘Operation Georgette’, struck against the British Second and First Armies to the south of the Ypres salient on 9 April, pushing back but not breaking the line around that symbolic town. ‘Operation Blücher’, which commenced on 27 May, overwhelmed Allied forces on the Chemin des Dames and saw German troops reaching the River Marne, which they had last crossed in 1914, before they were halted on its banks. ‘Operation Gneisenau’,…

 ‘Dia’ Harvey wore this camouflage smock during his deployment in the Falklands, and the medal group includes the South Atlantic 1982 medal with rosette. G Squadron was inserted behind enemy lines to carry out covert surveillance on the Bluff Cove and West Stanley areas. They spent 28 days at a time undertaking this work. Dia was known for his skill and courage at positioning his observation posts very close to the Argentine forces, in order to gather detailed information. “G SQUADRON WAS INSERTED BEHIND ENEMY LINES TO CARRY OUT COVERT SURVEILLANCE ON THE BLUFF COVE AND WEST STANLEY AREAS”…

 There have been countless books on John F. Kennedy and many on the so-called ‘special relationship’ between Britain and the United States. Christopher Sandford has decided to look into the matter more deeply in his latest book, having previously written on the relationship between Kennedy and Harold Macmillan. “KENNEDY WAS RESCUED (AFTER HIS TORPEDO BOAT WAS RAMMED IN THE PACIFIC DURING THE SECOND WORD WAR) BY A NATIVE SPORTING A LOINCLOTH, A TATTOO OF THE BRITISH FLAG AND AN IMPECCABLE ENGLISH ACCENT” Sandford’s basic idea is simple – the special relationship has been one-sided in all of its incarnations, with Britain very much the junior (and inferior) partner. This has been the case no matter who was in the White House and No. 10, respectively. The one exception to this…

FLAME ON Taken: 27 November 1942 A line of flamethrowers blaze upwards into the sky at the Army War Show, City Park Stadium, New Orleans. The show also featured tank manoeuvres, infantry drills and other weapons demonstrations. These shows toured the USA with the aim of demonstrating to the public the tools available to America’s armed forces, as well as to raise funds for the Army Emergency Relief Fund. A VISIT FROM ABE Taken: 3 October 1862 This iconic photograph shows President Abraham Lincoln visiting with Union officers near Antietam, Maryland, the site of the recent clash with Confederate forces. In the battle’s aftermath, General George McClellan (third from left) was criticised by Lincoln for not pursuing the retreating Confederate army under Robert E. Lee. The battle was one of…

Waughman commanded the same basic crew of seven airmen plus a special duty operator in two Lancaster bombers between 1943-44. The crew became very close friends and worked as one to survive. “We all became a big band of brothers and we just gelled, it really was a wonderful crew. I was responsible for the aircraft but on operations the crew were telling you what to do. The rear gunner would shout, ‘Dive starboard, go!’ when we were being attacked, and if you asked why it was too bloody late – you’d be shot down. So you had to obey and do what the crew suggested. You had the final decision to make, but you were just another crewmember.” Waughman was awarded the DFC for completing 30 missions but felt…

insignificant in the face of an attack by over a dozen enemy fighters. Nevertheless, Barker’s experienced fighter instincts came into play as “a large formation of Fokkers… attacked him from all directions; and [he] was again severely wounded in the left thigh; but succeeded in driving two of the enemy into a spin.” With two wounds, Barker lost consciousness and his Snipe span out of control. When he came to, Barker discovered he was again being attacked by a large formation. Barker singled out one machine and “deliberately charged and drove it down in flames.” During this second fight, Barker’s left elbow was broken and he fell unconscious again before reawakening in the midst of another attack. Despite being “severely wounded in both legs and his left arm shattered, he…

01 The Ottoman army captured the Venetian fortress at Argos in Morea in April 1463, starting the First Ottoman-Venetian War. The Turks launched destructive raids against Venetian bases in southern Morea, such as Lepanto and Methoni. Venetian attempts to retake Argos and capture Corinth failed. The Venetians allied themselves with the Hungarians and feudal princes of Albania. 02 Venetian Condottiero Sigismondo Malatesta landed at the fortress of Methoni in August 1464 and assumed command of 2,100 troops. A force of 12,000 Ottomans marched into Morea. They defeated the vanguard of Malatesta’s army, forcing the remainder to evacuate. 03 Mehmed led 30,000 troops into Albania and besieged the fortress of Kruje in June 1466. The Ottomans pillaged large swathes of the Albanian countryside in an effort to intimidate Skanderbeg. The superb…

Generals Erich Ludendorff and Ferdinand Foch were two of the best commanders of the war. Both had extensive experience when they faced off in 1918. Ludendorff had learned modern tactics and battle planning on the Eastern Front, when he was chief of staff to General Paul von Hindenburg from 1914 to 1916. When Hindenburg became Germany’s commander-in-chief in September 1916 Ludendorff assumed the new role of first quartermaster general, responsible for German strategy and military operations. Ludendorff found adapting to the material-intensive warfare of the Western Front difficult after fighting the Russians. His first decision was to assume a more defensive posture, since Germany’s armies were suffering heavily in the dual battles of attrition at Verdun and the Somme. In spring 1917 he conducted a strategic retreat to newly built…

01 ON KINGS MOUNTAIN Major Patrick Ferguson has camped his 900-strong army of Loyalist regulars and militia atop Kings Mountain, a 550-metre (600-yard) long ridge in South Carolina. He trusts to the natural strength of the ridge, and neglects to fortify his position. 02 PATRIOT APPROACH A force of some 900 Patriots approaches Kings Mountain from the southeast, and gets within 0.4 kilometres (0.25 miles) before being seen by the Loyalists on top. Three divisions under Campbell, Shelby and Sevier gather around the southeastern end of the ridge. 03 ATTACK ! The divisions under Campbell, Shelby and Sevier launch their assault, yelling war whoops as they climb uphill. Major Ferguson orders troops to fight them at the southeastern end. The Patriots are easily dispersed by a Loyalist bayonet charge, but…

British National Service began with an Act of Parliament of the same name in 1948. The subsequent wars, such as Malaya, Korea, Borneo and the Cold War made it necessary to maintain a strong defence capability without the immense costs of a large standing army, navy and air force. All fit young men were eligible for a ‘call up’ at the age of 18 for two years of military service. This could be deferred if the conscript was in a preferred and important job, such as mining or in higher education at university. To many, national service was considered a ‘rite of passage’ from boyhood to manhood. The time away from home, combined with the adversity, was believed to develop strong character. Today, many people believe that a ‘strong dose’…