Innholdsfortegnelse for No. 51 i History of War

“Every German soldier must be made to feel that he is living under the muzzle of a Russian gun” – Vasily Chuikov, Commander, 62nd Army, Stalingrad This year marks 75 years since Field Marshal Paulus surrendered the Sixth Army at Stalingrad, a moment regarded as the most important turning point in the war against Nazi Germany. The preceding months of fighting had produced the highest number of casualties in the entire war, as Axis and Soviet forces engaged in deadly close-quarter combat among the city’s ruins. General Chuikov’s words to his men during the early months of the battle reflect just how tenacious the defending Soviets would eventually prove to be. By 1943 the German invaders had become entirely encircled in the city, and some 91,000 men were taken prisoner.…

Cádiz had been attacked by an English force earlier in the war, when Sir Francis Drake had led an expedition in 1587, attempting to prevent the build-up of an invasion fleet. The raid was a stunning success, with plans for the armada pushed back a year. Drake’s raid was notable for the decisiveness of his actions. Upon reaching Cádiz he launched an assault immediately, quickly sailing his vessels into the harbour and causing panic among the Spanish defenders. Only one of his ships was lost, while more than 30 Spanish vessels were destroyed. Despite the success of the raid, Drake himself accepted that he had done nothing but postpone the plans of Philip II, referring to the action as merely “singeing the King of Spain’s beard”. The financial damage inflicted…

SIR FRANCIS VERE 1560–1609 ENGLISH ARMY In a period where English military glory was reserved almost exclusively for the navy, Vere stood out as one of the finest soldiers of his day. Having made an uncertain start to his career under the hapless Earl of Leicester, he quickly carved out a formidable reputation, earning a knighthood in 1588. Elizabeth’s strategy aimed to maintain the balance of power in Europe, and English forces fought alongside those of Maurice of Nassau in support of Dutch independence. It was a time of change on the battlefield (some historians see events of the period as nothing less than a military revolution) and Vere proved naturally suited to commanding men, adapting his small force of English soldiers to the new tactics employed by Maurice. His…

Supplying the men and machines in the Stalingrad pocket by air began on 23 November. JU-52 transport planes flew into Pitomnik airfield (roughly 20 kilometres or 12 miles from central Stalingrad) mainly from Tatsinskaya 260 kilometres (160 miles) to the west. For a JU-52 the flight time was 75 minutes one way, but over three hours was required for unloading, refuelling and waiting time. Despite the objections of local Luftwaffe commanders Goering would not explain to Hitler that the air bridge was unable to deliver the necessary tonnage of supplies. It was estimated that 300 tons per day would keep the garrison functioning, whereas 750 tons would enable it to perform at an operational capacity. This latter figure was revised down to 500 tons in light of experience. The reality…

“WHENEVER THERE ARE REMEMBRANCE SERVICES PRETTY MUCH ALL MPS ATTEND TO PAY TRIBUTE TO THOSE WHO GAVE THEIR LIVES FOR THAT WHICH WE ALL TAKE FOR GRANTED” JIM FITZPATRICK MP CONSTITUENCY: POPLAR AND LIMEHOUSE PARTY: LABOUR WWI PREDECESSOR: SIR WILLIAM PEARCE (LIBERAL) Can you imagine MPs volunteering for military service today in circumstances similar to WWI? I wouldn’t have thought they would join up in the same numbers but clearly there are MPs who have been members of the armed forces. There are still MPs who are reservists and a number have been out to Iraq, Afghanistan and elsewhere. I would not be at all surprised if there were MPs who would fulfil that expectation. I spent 23 years in the Fire Brigade and am 65 now, but I…

ADRIAN CARTON DE WIART (1880-1963) Carton de Wiart, an eye-patch wearing, one-handed, Belgian-born British Army officer, personally selected Callow for commando service. Carton de Wiart fought in three major conflicts across six decades and won a Victoria Cross during the Battle of the Somme. Although he was wounded eight times in World War I alone, he once said that “war was in my blood”. CHIANG KAI-SHEK (1887-1975) Chiang was the powerful head of the Nationalist government of China from 1928-49, who reunified the country in the inter-war period as well as ostensibly leading it through World War II. However, Chiang was defeated during the Communist Revolution between 1946-49. Chiang fled with the remnants of his government and founded the state of Taiwan, which is still officially known as the ‘Republic…

After the attempted river crossings of 28 July, Belgrade became the subject not of invasion but bombardment. In the early hours of 29 July shells fell on Kalemegdan fortress and spread across the city from Austro-Hungarian batteries at Semlin and Bežanija on the opposite bank of the river, striking indiscriminately at hotels, banks, embassies, churches, homes and setting alight the state tobacco factory. Shells fell for eight days and nights, by some miracle causing only one civilian casualty. On 9 August the batteries opened up with the heaviest onslaught so far, cutting off water and electricity, hitting the train station, setting a coal yard ablaze and levelling the National Museum. This was a clear violation of the Hague Convention, which ruled that “all necessary steps must be taken to spare,…

“IN MID-APRIL, TITO CAME OUT AND BOLDLY ANNOUNCED YUGOSLAVIA’S CLAIMS TO TRIESTE. THE FACT THAT HIS STATEMENT WAS MADE ON A VISIT TO MOSCOW WAS TAKEN AS A CLEAR INDICATION OF AT LEAST TACIT SOVIET SUPPORT” THE FIRST FLASHPOINT OF THE COLD WAR BETWEEN EAST AND WEST IS EXPLORED Author: Christian Jennings Publisher: Osprey Price: £20 Trieste has always held a strategically important position, with its crucial deep-water port forming an outlet into the Adriatic Sea from landlocked Austria, Hungary and southern Germany. The city is the gateway to the Balkans from the north and, above all, southeastern and south-central Europe. Its hinterland stretches from Bavaria and the former Czechoslovakia to upper Silesia and western Galicia in Poland. In short, in 1945 it meant far more to the world than…

TOM GARNER This issue Tom spoke with MPs and families for the new book Led By Lions,which re-investigates the service of politicians during WWI (p. 40). Also, you can find the second part of his gripping interview with Burma veteran Dr Robert Callow (p. 48). JAMES HOARE Although dismissed as a mere sideshow to the Western and Eastern Fronts, the 1914 Serbian campaign was a critical theatre of the war, as History of War’s group editor-in-chief explores in this first part of his new series (p. 58). WILLIAM WELSH In this issue’s Great Battles, William investigates the Siege of Khe Sanh, which began 50 years ago this month. The clash saw isolated US marines pinned down and fighting for their lives during the early months of the Tet Offensive (p.…

“RALEIGH AND ESSEX WERE EACH DETERMINED TO LEAD THE NAVAL ASSAULT INTO THE BAY OF CÁDIZ, AND ESSEX FUMED WHEN HE WAS ASSIGNED A BACKUP ROLE” The 1596 raid on Cádiz was a lesson in the dangers of a divided command. Although Spanish leadership at Cádiz was also weak (the Duke of Medina Sidonia, who had commanded the Spanish Armada, was technically in command but seemed paralysed at the approach of the Anglo-Dutch fleet) it did not come close to the levels of infighting and jostling for position seen in the English forces. Not only did this impact on the organisation and implementation of the raid, it had dire financial consequences – the personal rivalries may have been at the heart of the failure to capture the Spanish merchantmen in…

True to their credentials as leaders, the vast majority of MPs served in the armed forces as officers and proportionately suffered heavy casualties. 22 sitting parliamentarians died between 1914-18, but the loss of their sons overwhelmingly outweighed their own sacrifices, with almost 90 being killed by the end of the war. Written by military historian Neil Thornton, Led By Lions dispels the popular belief that Britain’s politicians sat in safety while they heartlessly sent the nation’s youths to their deaths. The prime minister, chancellor of the exchequer and Speaker of the House of Commons all lost sons, and many MPs who died were noted for their extreme bravery, such as Thomas Agar-Robartes, who was recommended for the Victoria Cross. Such gallantry is at odds with the popular perception of ordinary…

“THE LACK OF A TAIL ROTOR PERMITS NEARLY 100 PER CENT POWER TO BE USED FOR LIFT, MAKING IT IDEAL FOR AIRCRAFT RECOVERY MISSIONS” Initially designed and built by Boeing Vertol in the early 1960s, the CH-47 Chinook is now manufactured by Boeing Rotorcraft Systems at their recently modernised Ridley Park facility near Philadelphia. The CH-47A first entered service with the United States Army on 16 August 1962. Due to the outbreak of the Vietnam War in 1965, the Chinook entered into a baptism of fire on the front line and was heavily utilised, providing a heavy-lift capability. For a short time it also operated as a gunship. The lack of a tail rotor permits nearly 100 per cent power to be used for lift, making it ideal for aircraft…

“TIME AND AGAIN THROUGH EVERY BIOGRAPHY EACH MP OR SON WAS DETERMINED TO LEAD FROM THE FRONT, PROVE THEMSELVES TO THEIR MEN AND IN MANY CASES DIE FOR THEM” NEIL THORNTON REVEALS HOW THE BRITISH HOUSE OF COMMONS WAS NOT IMMUNE FROM THE TRAGEDY OF 1914-18 IN THIS WELL-RESEARCHED AND POIGNANT BOOK Author: Neil Thornton Publisher: Fonthill Media Price: £25 (Hardback) The phrase “lions led by donkeys” is popularly used to describe the brave fighting spirit of ordinary British soldiers during World War I who were let down by incompetent commanders. Although variants of the phrase predate the Great War, its current widespread use is widely attributed to Alan Clark’s revisionist history The Donkeys. Clark later became a high-profile MP and Led by Lions is an apt title for Neil…

The destruction of the Spanish Armada in 1588 overshadows all other events in the undeclared Anglo-Spanish War of 1585-1604. It was certainly a significant defeat for the Spanish, but it neither ended the war nor allayed English fears of a Spanish invasion. By 1596 those fears were rising once more, but opinion was divided on how the war should be prosecuted. The queen and her advisors favoured raids, protection of important continental ports and limited commitment of troops in the Low Countries. Robert Devereux, the Earl of Essex and a favourite of the queen, argued instead that ports and cities should be captured from the Spanish and held. The Port of Cádiz, where a new Spanish fleet was believed to be massing, was seen by both sides of the argument…

“LIFE FOR THE COMMON SAILOR WAS HARD, WHETHER IN THE NAVY OR IN A PRIVATELY OWNED VESSEL” During a period of military innovation, the battlefield was transforming and gunpowder weaponry was firmly in the ascendancy. As technological advancements were made, artillery became increasingly important both on land and at sea. The days of heavy cavalry commanding the field were gone, and armies increased in size and artillery, arquebuses and muskets began to dominate. ENGLISH SAILOR AS WELL AS CREWING HIS SHIP, AN ENGLISH TAR WOULD BE EXPECTED TO FIGHT WHEN BATTLE WAS JOINED Life for the common sailor was hard, whether in the navy or in a privately owned vessel, but it got even harder when a ship sailed into battle. Not only was the boarding of enemy vessels and…

“IN 1955, ONLY 5,000 STALINGRAD VETERANS RETURNED TO GERMANY” It had taken the Soviets some time to realise the numbers trapped in the Stalingrad pocket. Consequently there was a degree of confusion over the numbers actually captured. There is no doubt that many Axis troops were summarily executed during the fighting as a reaction to the conditions many Soviet troops had seen their own men kept in as POWs. Furthermore, of the large number of Hiwis, many attempted to melt into the chaos. A figure that is generally accepted for Axis POWs is 91,000. As Paulus underwent interrogation and had his staff car confiscated, his hungry, exhausted and sick men stumbled across the river they had bled to reach. Thousands died of malnutrition, frostbite and mercy shots as they were…

What was the idea behind the book? The original idea came to me about two years ago. I got invited to Downing Street by my then-MP because I’d done some local project work. The MP who invited me knows a lot about history, and I’d seen something he’d posted on social media about the 100th anniversary of when an MP was killed during the war. I’m obviously interested in military history so I Googled this man, and the story that came up was fascinating. I read up on more MPs that were killed – mainly through military forums – and they all said the same things like, “Politicians pointed at a map and sent their men there who were subsequently killed. They didn’t care and all sat back in the…

There were mass celebrations in Britain when Nazi Germany unconditionally surrendered on 8 May 1945. To many it was a huge sigh of relief that the war in Europe had ended after years of death and destruction on a scale that even dwarfed World War I. Nevertheless, World War II was not actually over, and the nightmarish conflict against Japan continued in the Far East for months afterwards. To British soldiers like Robert Callow, who were still vigorously fighting the Japanese, VE Day meant very little in what remained an extremely bloody war: “Churchill declared VE Day in Europe in May 1945 but we lost 4,000 men between May and August.” At that point Callow had only just turned 20, but he was already an experienced explosives expert and polyglot…