Innholdsfortegnelse for No.35 i History of War

“It is not by speeches and majority resolutions that the great questions of the time are decided… but by iron and blood” – Otto von Bismarck A triumphant German invasion, Paris occupied and France forced into a humiliating surrender – however this isn’t 1940, but 1871. The Franco-Prussian War sealed the fate of the Second French Empire and saw the birth of the Second German Reich. Prussia, and its president minister the peerless Otto von Bismarck, had utilised aggressive politics, unrivalled strategy, along with unstoppable battlefield tactics to consolidate its formidable power in Europe. Not only did this relatively short war see the likes of Helmuth von Moltke confirmed as the world’s finest military leaders, it also set the scene for the coming global conflict that would alter warfare…

“TEMPLARS WERE CHARACTERISED BY THEIR RELIGIOUS ZEAL AND LED A PIOUS LIFESTYLE OF CHASTITY, CLEAN LIVING AND PRAYER” Although the First Crusade had been successful, the European presence in the Levant was precarious and the burgeoning Crusader states were vulnerable to attack from neighbouring Muslim powers. There was also a swathe of Christian pilgrims, now travelling east through dangerous territory, who needed protection. It was in this context that military orders of pious knights sprang up to protect their hard-fought gains in and around the new Kingdom of Jerusalem. KNIGHTS TEMPLAR OFFICIALLY KNOWN AS THE ‘POOR FELLOW-SOLDIERS OF CHRIST’, THESE ZEALOUS WARRIORS WERE A MAINSTAY IN DEFENDING CRUSADER LANDS Founded in 1119 at Temple Mount in Jerusalem, the Templars are the best known of the monastic orders and vigorously fought…

According to the principles created during the Wars of Liberation (1813-15) the ‘task of the army’ was not to ‘fight wars’, but to ‘train the nation for war’. In Prussia (and indeed all other armies of the North-German Confederation), every young man from the age of 20 was liable to do compulsory military service. After being drafted, he served for three years on active duty with his local (‘hometown’) regiment, after which he could request retention on active duty or accept release, in which case he would be placed in that regiment’s reserve pool for the next four years. As part of the army’s formal reserve, he was liable to be mobilised as part of his regiment in time of national emergency. The reserve pool thus formed allowed German armies…

RUTHERFORD B HAYES YEARS IN SERVICE: 1861-65 PRESIDENTIAL TERM: 1877-1881 Hayes served in the 23rd Ohio Infantry for the duration of the conflict. He led troops at the Battle of South Mountain in 1862, where his left arm was fractured by a bullet, and participated in the Valley Campaigns of 1864. During the war, Hayes was also wounded in the knee and shoulder. By 1865, he was a brevet major general and Ulysses S Grant said of Hayes, “His conduct was marked by conspicuous gallantry as well as the display of qualities of a higher order than that of mere personal daring.” JAMES A GARFIELD YEARS IN SERVICE: 1861-63 PRESIDENTIAL TERM: 1881 Despite having no military training, Garfield was commissioned as a colonel in the 42nd Ohio Infantry Regiment in…

AUGUSTIN TRÉBUCHON Trébuchon was a runner with the 415th Infantry Regiment. At 10.45am on Armistice Day, he was halfway between Sedan and Charleville-Mézières when he was shot by a sniper. He’d been despatched to deliver a message to frontline troops that soup would be served at 11.30am in celebration of the ceasefire. PRIVATE GEORGE LAWRENCE PRICE Price was part of a Canadian patrol ordered to take the village of Harvré. Approaching it, they came under machine-gun fire. Assaulting the house where the fire had come from, Price’s unit was abandoned. When he stepped into the street to investigate further, a sniper killed him. It was 10.58am. SERGEANT HENRY GUNTHER On Armistice Day, Gunther’s squad was ordered to destroy a roadblock defended by machine guns in the village of Chaumontdevant-Damvillers. In…

The island of Malta in the Mediterranean was a British bastion of resistance, a thorn in the Axis enemy’s side. To bolster Malta’s air defences, on 12 November 1941, the aircraft carriers Ark Royal and Argus launched 37 Hawker Hurricanes destined for the island. Their mission complete, Ark Royal and the other ships of Force H retired westward toward Gibraltar. German submarines were operating in the area, and all hands remained vigilant. Nevertheless, on the afternoon of the 13th a huge explosion sent a geyser skyward near the destroyer Legion. The German submarine U-205 had fired three torpedoes at Ark Royal; all missed, but one exploded prematurely. U-205 dashed off a report that was picked up by another submarine, U-81. At 3pm, Kapitanleutnant Friedrich Guggenberger of U-81 sighted Force H…

TOM GARNER Engrossed in the presidential debates still raging at time of writing, this month Tom took a look at some of the USA’s most famous soldier presidents (p.46). He also spoke with a Monte Cassino veteran (p.36) and historian of the Crusades (p.20). ROB SCHÄFER To complement his Heroes of the Reich series (p.88), this issue Rob looks further back to the origins of the German Empire during the Franco-Prussian War. Starting on page 28 he explores the technology and tactics behind the Prussian victory. TOM FARRELL Columbia’s turbulent 50-year guerilla war appeared finally to be coming to an end in 2016, but at time of writing is still just short of a lasting peace deal. Over on page 82, Tom takes a look at the FARC and the…

WHAT WERE THE CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE THIRD CRUSADE AND HOW WAS IT ORGANISED? In 1187, the Kingdom of Jerusalem’s army, which had held the city for the Latin West, was destroyed at the Battle of Hattin. It was a great shock and there was a call for another Crusade, but it took a long time to organise. The kings of England and France were bitter rivals so Richard had to settle things with his French rival before they could depart. In a sense, it’s the last of the ‘classic Crusades’. The First Crusade was a dash to Jerusalem and that’s the template for what followed in the 12th century. WHAT QUALITIES DO YOU THINK STOOD RICHARD APART AS A SOLDIER AND GENERAL COMPARED WITH HIS CONTEMPORARIES? Contemporaries were impressed because…

SALAH AD-DIN (SALADIN) THE HAMMER OF THE CRUSADERS YEARS ACTIVE: 1182-93 COUNTRY: UPPER MESOPOTAMIA Born in Tikrit (modern day Iraq) into a prominent Kurdish family, Saladin was trained in military matters by his uncle, Asad ad-Din Shirkuh, who was an important commander for the emir Nureddin. By the age of 31, in 1169, Saladin was the commander of all Syrian troops and vizier of Egypt. In the following years, northern Mesopotamia and, most importantly, Palestine came under his control. Generally known as the Sultan of Egypt, Saladin developed a reputation as a generous but firm ruler, and his every act was influenced by an unwavering devotion to jihad (holy war) and spreading the influence of Muslim institutions and power. Militarily, he united and disciplined various Muslim factions, and in 1187,…

The Monte Cassino Society is dedicated to furthering interest in the experiences of those from all Allied nations who participated in the Italian Campaign of WWII. Three daughters of Monte Cassino veterans founded the society and its aims are to collect, document and preserve information about veterans’ experiences so that they are remembered by future generations. Veterans and relatives are welcome to contribute accounts, memoirs or recollections. Newsletters detailing events and news for members are released quarterly. For more information visit www.montecassinosociety.co.uk/index. php and to contact the society, all enquiries can be sent to info@montecassinosociety.co.uk…

HARRY S TRUMAN YEARS IN SERVICE: 1905-11, 1917-19 PRESIDENTIAL TERM: 1945-53 Truman was the only president to have seen combat in WWI. After serving in the Missouri National Guard between 1905-11, he rejoined his unit in 1917 when America joined the conflict. Promoted to captain, he commanded Battery D of 129th Field Artillery and was shipped to France. His battery had a reputation being unruly, but Truman turned it into an effective force. He first saw action in the Vosges Mountains in August 1918, and then the Meuse-Argonne offensive during September-October 1918. His battery fired some of the last shots of the war on 11 November 1918. LYNDON B JOHNSON YEARS IN SERVICE: 1940-64 PRESIDENTIAL TERM: 1963-1969 Congressman Johnson became a lieutenant commander in the US Naval Reserve in June…

On 15 April 1942, King George VI awarded the George Cross to the island of Malta to, “bear witness to the heroism and devotion of its people.” The British fortress island had withstood months of relentless Axis air raids. Critical to the valorous stand of Malta’s population were the British convoys that braved hazardous Mediterranean routes to deliver sustenance to the embattled island, running a gauntlet of Axis attacks from both air and sea. Convoys were regularly set upon by enemy forces. These included German Junkers Ju 87, Stuka dive bombers and long-range Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor patrol craft armed with torpedoes, versatile three-engine Italian Savoia-Marchetti SM 79 torpedo/dive bombers, U-boats and Italian submarines, and Axis surface warships. During the early months of Malta’s ordeal, convoys originated in the east…

“COLOMBIA’S CIVIL WAR IS THE LEGACY OF LA VIOLENCIA, OVER A DECADE’S WORTH OF BRUTALITY BY SUPPORTERS OF THE CONSERVATIVE AND LIBERAL PARTIES IN THE COUNTRYSIDE” An old Colombian says that, “clean hands offend no one.” It may well have been in many peoples’ minds when the ceasefire came into effect. At midnight on 29 August 2016, the agreement became binding. Weeks earlier in Havana, Colombia’s President Juan Manuel Santos had signed a decree to end hostilities with Rodrigo Londono aka Timochenko. Four years after peace talks began and 52 years since taking up arms, the Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia (FARC) (Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia) seemed to be ending its armed struggle. There had been the precedent of a ceasefire in 1984-87 and failed peace talks in 1991-92…

“HE MADE AVIATION HISTORY ON 2 APRIL 1917 WHEN HE BECAME THE FIRST PILOT TO SHOOT DOWN AN ENEMY PLANE BY NIGHT” In August 1914, Frankl volunteered for service in the German Air Arm serving in Feldflieger-Abteilung 1 and 40 on reconnaissance and bombing missions. Acting as an observer in a two-seater aeroplane, he scored his first victory in air combat on 10 May 1915, when he shot down a French Voisin pusher plane using only a semi-automatic carbine. In 1916, he trained to pilot single-seater fighter planes. Even though he proved to be an outstanding fighter pilot, his faith barred him from becoming an officer, and after becoming engaged to the Christian daughter of an Austrian officer, he made the controversial decision to convert to Christianity. The promotion to…

Written by: Susan Loughhead Publisher: Amberley Press Price: £20 Released: Out now The author of this book works for the Department of International Development and between 2010 and 2013 her work took her to Afghanistan’s capital, Kabul. It was a city that her own grandfather Sam Simms had lived in over 60 years earlier as an army clerk working in the British embassy there, and that coincidence leads her on a fascinating journey that uncovers both her own family’s past and that of one of the world’s most troubled countries. Afghanistan in 1948, when 39-year-old Simm turned up was a country on the brink of enormous change. Britain’s attempts to bring this most wild of countries into the Empire started in the early 19th century when the UK’s first envoy…

Author: Guy Ellis Publisher: Amberley Publishing Price: £12.99 This is actually the second volume of Guy Ellis’ history of British jet planes. Volume I covered the Meteor to the Sea Vixen, while this volume picks up the story of the ‘second generation’, starting with the Gloster Javelin. The book provides brief background detail on planes including the English Electric Lightning, the Supermarine Scimitar and the Avro Vulcan, complementing it with extensive photographs. The photographs are the real strength of the book, showing the aircraft in many different forms and providing fascinating detail. The text, however, does not do the wonderful photography justice, and is often a little too sketchy to allow for a real appreciation of the planes in question. There is no attempt to present a coherent narrative of…

“ONCE THE GATE OF SAINT GEORGE WAS OPENED, THE CRUSADERS STREAMED IN AND MASSACRED THE MUSLIM POPULATION” Starting in 1096, the armies of the First Crusade marched thousands of kilometres in an attempt to retake Jerusalem from Fatimid Muslims. By 1097 many had already died, particularly in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey), but soon the path to Palestine was in sight. In order to reach Jerusalem, the Crusaders had to get past Antioch – strategically located near the border of Anatolia and what is now Syria. Antioch had once been one of the great cities of the Roman and Christian worlds – Its huge walls built by the great Byzantine emperor, Justinian I. Despite its long history though, Seljuk Muslims had only captured the city in 1085. Located in mountainous territory, the…

TEMPLAR KNIGHT YEARS IN OPERATION: 1118-1291 WEAPON Crusader swords were singlehanded, medium-length longswords with a straight, double-edged blade. Owning a sword confirmed nobility on the bearer and the pommel often bore cross-shaped motifs. SHIELD Most Crusader shields were long and very expensive. They would be decorated with symbols to aid recognition. As well as defence, shields could also be used as a bludgeoning weapon. ARMOUR Hauberks were chainmail shirts that covered the whole body to the knees. They were very protective but extremely heavy, causing restricted movement and discomfort in hot conditions. Wealthy knights also wore ‘great helm’ helmets with eye slits and breathing holes. DISCIPLINE Military orders, like the Templars, were individually and tightly disciplined, and could influence victories such as Montgisard. However, their success was often dependent on…

“It is not by speeches and majority resolutions that the great questions of the time are decided... but by iron and blood” – OTTO VON BISMARCK In the 190 days following their invasion of France, German forces spearheaded by Prussia steamrolled through the country, defeating the French army in 15 large battles and more than 100 smaller engagements. Finally, at the Battle of Sedan on 1 September 1870, the French emperor, Napoleon III, was forced into a dramatic surrender after a military disaster that precipitated revolution in Paris and led to the establishment of the Third French Republic. In late spring, the new French government had no option other than to ask for peace and to agree to sign the humiliating Treaty of Frankfurt, which ended the war on…

Führung durch Direktiven (directive command), more colloquially known as Auftragstaktik, was the product of an evolutionary process that started in the early-19th century, driven by the necessity to develop greater initiative in commanders at all levels. Even though the seeds for it were sown during the Prussian reforms of 1807, it was first used and properly institutionalised both during and after the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 and the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71, where the increased range and destructive power of modern weaponry forced greater unit dispersion across the battlefield and as a direct result loss of command control. The power of rapid-firing, breech-loading rifles and artillery made it necessary to break up the tight geometrical troop formations of earlier years. Prussia’s tactics made maximum use of these new technologies and…

Davies fought in the Queen’s Own Royal West Kent Regiment during WWII as part of 78th Division. He recalls of his time in the division, “We used to be called ‘Churchill’s Butchers’. That was name ‘Lord Haw-Haw’ used to give us because that was part of his propaganda (real name William Joyce, Lord Haw-Haw was a British fascist and Nazi broadcaster). He’d say things like, ‘How are Churchill’s butchers today?’ and things like that. The 78th Division had quite a good record in Italy.” The reason Davies’s division had come to the attention of Nazi propagandists was because its infantry were highly effective. 78th Division was formed in Scotland on 35 May 1942, and within four months of its establishment, it took part in Operation Torch, the Allied invasion of…

THE ARMISTICE OF 1918 WAS THE END OF HOSTILITIES BETWEEN THE GREAT POWERS, BUT WAS THERE STILL OPEN CONFLICT BETWEEN CERTAIN STATES AFTER 11 NOVEMBER? While 11 November brought peace to the principal victor states of the Great War – France, the US, and Britain (minus Ireland) – the same cannot be said about the defeated, or indeed about Greece and Italy. For much of Europe, notably in its eastern half, the Great War was followed between 1918 and 1923 by a series of vicious inter-state wars, civil wars and other episodes of ethnic violence, killing more people than the combined wartime casualties of Britain, France and the US. TO WHAT EXTENT DID THE ‘VICTORS’ OF WWI EXACERBATE UNREST AND CONFLICT ACROSS THE CONTINENT BETWEEN 1917-23? The influence that the…

FAIREY SWORDFISH By 1939, the Fairey Swordfish was a flying anachronism. In an era of high performance monoplanes, the biplane was constructed mostly of wire, wood, and canvas stretched across a metal airframe. Nicknamed the ‘Stringbag’, the Swordfish was a slow, lumbering aircraft, mustering a top speed of 230 kilometres per hour while armed with a single aerial torpedo. Although it could accommodate a crew of three, including pilot, observer and radio operator/rear gunner, the third position was often occupied by an auxiliary fuel tank. At the outbreak of World War II, 26 squadrons of the Fleet Air Arm were equipped with the antiquated Swordfish. Despite its shortcomings, the Swordfish was a stable torpedo launching platform, and the aircraft proved its worth, executing the Royal Navy’s stunningly successful surprise attack…

1946-8 La Violencia begins between supporters of the Conservative and Liberal Parties. After a period of dictatorship in the 1950s, the two parties form a number of power-sharing National Front governments. 1964 FARC is founded by Manuel Marulanda as the armed wing of the Colombian Communist Party in the aftermath of an army assault on communist groups in the countryside. 1984 A ceasefire is signed in La Uribe. It lasts until 1987 when fighting breaks out and a FARCassociated electoral candidate is assassinated. FARC co-founds the Patriotic Union (UP) at this time. 1987-90 Uneven contact with FARC is halted under the presidency of César Gaviria Trujillo. Minor attempts at talks in Venezuela and Mexico bring no results. 1990 The army launches a combined air and ground attack on FARC headquarters…

Written by: Jonathan Falconer Publisher: Haynes Publishing Price: £22.99 Released: Out now In terms of weapons, the legacy of World War II is still very much with us in the form of long-range bombers, most chillingly, of course, in the form of nuclear weapons. As it says in the epilogue to this book, ‘For 70 years the world has teetered on the nuclear precipice, sometimes coming close to catastrophe, at times taking a step or two back. Nevertheless nuclear weapons remain a part of life.’ These weapons of mass destruction, still deemed necessary by our politicians for our protection, no longer haunt us in quite the same way as the once did but this book is a chilling reminder of the kind of world they once shaped. There was a…

THREE SISTERS, THREE QUEENS In Philippa Gregory’s latest novel, Three Sisters, Three Queens, she returns to the Tudor period to tell the tale of three sisters-in-law: Henry VIII’s older sister Margaret Tudor, younger sister Mary Tudor and his first wife Katherine of Aragon. Fans of the ere will find much to enjoy here, with Gregory bringing the turbulent Tudors vividly back to life. THE GREAT CONSPIRACY. BRITAIN’S SECRET WAR AGAINST REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE 1794-1805 Economies in turmoil. Radical forces seeking sweeping political change. Scapegoated immigrants. The political establishment using all the powers at its disposal – both legal and nefarious – to protect its interests – Carlos de La Huerta’s work could easily be about the world we live in today rather than Enlightenment-era Europe. An utterly absorbing read that adds…

Author: Gordon Mellor Publisher: Fighting High Ltd Price: £19.95 A first-hand account of life as a navigator in the RAF, ETA delivers penetrating insight into the excitement, tension and terror that was thrown at bomber crews in varying combinations during the Second World War. Following a detailed depiction of training, the book focuses on Mellor’s experience of combat and his efforts to evade capture (with the help of the Resistance) after being shot down. The book is written very much as you would expect to hear the story straight from Mellor’s mouth, giving it an authenticity that is compelling. It inevitably leads to occasional glossing over of events, as Mellor moves on to different topics, but this actually helps to reinforce the impression of sitting next to the man himself…

“THEY WERE VULNERABLE TO SHARPSHOOTERS AND IF CAVALRY BROKE THROUGH THEIR RANKS, VICIOUS FIGHTING WOULD OCCUR” At the beginning of the British Civil Wars, pikemen made up about one third of the infantry in both royalist and parliamentarian armies. A pike would be 4.5 metres long and tapered towards the end with a sharp steel head. In battle, the pikemen formed up in six ranks, shoulder to shoulder. During fighting with other infantry, they would level their pikes at shoulder height, holding the last few feet and then march forwards towards the enemy. This tactic was known as ‘push of pike’. Although pikemen were slightly above musketeers in status, they were vulnerable to sharpshooters and if cavalry broke through their ranks, vicious fighting would occur. Consequently, pikemen were relatively well…