Innholdsfortegnelse for No.37 i History of War

1807 FRENCH INVASION OF PORTUGAL On 18 October 1807, more than 100,000 French troops crossed the Spanish frontier and on 30 November, General Junot occupied Lisbon without bloodshed. The French were stationed in Spain where they uneasily co-existed with their then Spanish allies. May 1808 DOS DE MAYO UPRISING The French occupied Madrid in March 1808 and deposed the Spanish royal family, replacing them with Joseph Bonaparte (Napoleon’s brother) as king. A popular uprising in Madrid was brutally suppressed with hundreds being executed, prompting a wider revolution. July 1808-January 1809 FRENCH ESCALATION Following a Spanish victory at Bailén in July 1808, Napoleon personally intervened with 200,000 veteran troops. His armies forced the small British force under Sir John Moore to evacuate Spain by sea. Moore was killed at Corunna but…

“THE PARATROOPERS’ ACTIONS DURING THE CAMPAIGN IN THE WEST HAD EARNED THEM A LEGENDARY, EVEN MYTHICAL REPUTATION” For the forthcoming invasion of Belgium and Holland, the Fallschirmtruppe was tasked with capturing a series of fortifications along the Belgian border, several strategically important bridges, as well as neutralising the Dutch government in The Hague. One of the Fallschirmtruppe’s designated targets was the gigantic fortress of Eben-Emael in Belgium. Constructed between 1931 and 1935 on the Belgian-Dutch border close to the Albert Canal, it was the largest and most powerful fortress in the world at its time. Bristling with gun turrets and casemates, and sporting an underground tunnel system with a total length of more than five kilometres, it covered an area of nearly 1.5 square km, dwarfing even the largest defensive…

Solferino, the largest battle seen in Europe since Leipzig, heralded a new era of warfare and set Italy on the path to unification and independence. Although it could not match the number of combatants (or the horrifying casualty list) of Leipzig 46 years earlier, it raged at such an intense level that it led directly to the formation of the Red Cross and adoption of the Geneva Conventions. As is often the case with new innovations, not all of the modern elements of the battle were fully appreciated at the time. The use of railways to transfer troops, for instance, was considered something of a high-risk gambit, although there was less room for doubt over the impact of rifled field artillery, which played a key role in the allied success.…

HVALFJÖRDUR 18.6 mile-long fjord (‘Whale-Fjord’) in western Iceland, which was home to a British and American naval base and assembly point for the Arctic Convoys until February 1942. LOCH EWE A sea loch in the north-west highlands of Scotland, Loch Ewe took over as assembly point, partly to confuse German Intelligence, following the disaster of PQ-17. NORTH CAPE The most perilous part of the voyage was crossing northern Norway because of German bases here, but the North Cape also gave the Allies the prize scalp of the Scharnhorst. MURMANSK Located on the Kola Bay, an inlet of the Barents Sea, close to Russia’s borders with Norway and Finland, Murmansk became the main port for the Arctic Convoys. BEAR ISLAND Royal Navy cruisers provided protection as far east as Bear Island.…

Hitler refused to sanction warship attacks until Scharnhorst was let off its leash in December 1943, slipping out of Altenfjord to attack convoy JW55B. With Tirpitz laid up following an attack by midget-subs, it was likely Scharnhorst would attack the convoys as Hitler needed to stem the flow of supplies to Russia. The heavily-armoured pocket-battleship – with nine 27-centimetre guns, gross tonnage of 38,000 and top-speed of 31 knots – missed its quarry due to poor visibility and then became separated from its own destroyer escort. Scharnhorst was unaware that a Royal Navy long-range protection group was trailing it. The British fleet was led by the battleship, the Duke of York, along with cruiser Jamaica and four destroyers. The first intercept occurred early on Boxing Day, the British strategy being…

“WERE IT NOT FOR THE NAVAJOS, THE MARINES WOULD NEVER HAVE TAKEN IWO JIMA”Major Howard Connor, 5th Marine Division The history of the United States government and its relations with Native American peoples is one of treaties honoured and broken, lands taken and reserved, and difficult, sometimes sorrowful, conduct. Despite decades of strained interaction, when external threats arose during the world wars, Native Americans answered the call to duty, some of them serving in a unique, vital and war-winning way. Native American code talkers, specially trained combat communications personnel, served during both World War I and World War II in Europe and the Pacific. Braving enemy fire and shunting away discrimination, racism and lack of opportunity, these men utilised codes derived from their native languages to transmit secure messages to…

“PRESIDENT RONALD REAGAN DECLARED 14 AUGUST 1982, AS NAVAJO CODE TALKERS DAY” Ironically, the success of the Navajo code talkers during World War II contributed to the long delay in recognition for the Native Americans whose contribution to victory remained classified until 1968. While the Navajo have been the most recognised Native American code talkers and their exploits, popularised in such media as the 2002 feature film Windtalkers, have resulted in greater familiarity among historians and even their own people, other Native American code talkers have – at long last – received some acclaim. After World War II, most Navajo returned to civilian life, farming and raising cattle. Others attended college on the GI Bill. One code talker remained a Marine for 30 years. Initially sworn to secrecy, the Navajo…

“THE BOXES BECAME TREASURED POSSESSIONS OF SERVICEMEN AND WOMEN ALIKE WHO KEPT THEM LONG AFTER THEIR CONTENTS HAD BEEN USED” Christmas 1914 has become famous for its touching displays of humanity that were epitomised by the unofficial truces between enemy troops on the Western Front. For British soldiers, the festive season was also complemented by the arrival of a special present from a teenage member of the Royal Family. Princess Mary was the 17-year-old daughter of King George V and took an early interest in servicemen’s welfare. It was her intention that “every sailor afloat and every soldier at the front” should have a Christmas present and she endorsed and organised a public fund for gifts. £162,591 (almost £17 million today) was raised by October 1914, and the gift box…

“THE FRENCH MAKE A SERIES OF ERRORS THAT ALLOW WELLINGTON TO CROSS THE RIVER ZADORRA WITH SEVERAL DIVISIONS. IN THE CHAOS, THE BRITISH TAKE TREASURE WORTH 5.5 MILLION FRANCS” 1 BATTLE OF VIMEIRO VIMEIRO, PORTUGAL 21 AUGUST 1808 General Junot attacks Wellington’s army in a classic French column formation. The British, fighting in lines, beat off Junot’s troops who lose 2,000 men and 13 cannon. 2 SECOND SIEGE OF ZARAGOZA ZARAGOZA, SPAIN 20 DECEMBER 1808 – 20 FEBRUARY 1809 The French capture the city from the Spanish in a bloody battle that becomes noted for its brutality. An estimated 54,000 Spaniards, both soldiers and civilians, are killed through disease and street fighting. 3 BATTLE OF TALAVERA TALAVERA, SPAIN 27-28 JULY 1809 Wellington commands 55,000 men, but 35,000 are uncooperative Spaniards…

For the first time in his career, the usually cautious Wellington had won a decisive victory at Salamanca by taking the offensive. This marked him out as a true rival to Napoleon. Indeed, the French General Foy wrote that Salamanca rose Wellington’s reputation “almost to the level of Marlborough” and was “a battle in the style of Frederick the Great.” After the battle, Wellington was able to enter Madrid on 6 August, although he was forced to retreat to Portugal in the autumn. Nonetheless, from that point on the French were reluctant to take the offensive against the allied armies in Spain and this, combined with a severe loss in manpower and resources, led to their ultimate expulsion from the Peninsula. Salamanca also had a propaganda impact across Europe and…

The British Civil Wars of the mid-17th century have largely been defined in the popular imagination as a momentous clash between the dour, puritanical ‘Roundheads’ of the English Parliament and the ‘Cavalier’ supporters of King Charles I. The truth is far more nuanced and the wars were exceptionally complicated, both militarily and politically. Nevertheless, the legend of the swashbuckling Cavaliers is enduring and the man most responsible for cementing their fame was Charles’s nephew and commander of his cavalry: Prince Rupert, Count Palatine of the Rhine. Rupert was the Royalists’ most dashing figure and he was their foremost military commander during the First English Civil War (1642-46). His role during this historically important conflict is well known, but the prince’s career was not just confined to the blood-soaked fields of…

Rupert was a man of many talents. His library contained more than 1,000 volumes in five different languages and he was skilled at the new process of mezzotint engraving, giving demonstrations “with his own hands” for the diarist John Evelyn. The prince also excelled at military science and was an honorary founding member of the Royal Society. His research included testing gunpowder and submitting ideas for water pumps, improved navigation instruments and even an early machine gun. Rupert’s chief scientific interest was in metallurgy and he set up several laboratories. He used his influence to begin experiments in improving iron cannons and developed an alloy of iron and zinc known as ‘Prince’s Metal’. He also attempted to produce a perfectly round lead shot and popularised the almost-magical glass phenomena known…

“THE MINE HAD STUCK IN BETWEEN THE AMMUNITION MAGAZINES AND IN BETWEEN THOSE WERE THE RUM AND THE OFFICERS’ WINE STORE.IT WAS SOD’S LAW THAT THE MINE GOT THE RUM!” WHAT WERE CONDITIONS LIKE DURING A CONVOY? The cold was the biggest enemy really. We never had any hot drinks and the only redeeming feature was that we would get a cup of hot soup on the noon watch. At the time we didn’t really think about it but looking back it was horrific. We were huddled up in a shelter or behind the gun shield. Doing it for four hours was a long time but sometimes it was six hours and that wasn’t very nice at all. The temperature was always below freezing and the further north you went…

“HIS GALLANT STAND AND FEARLESS LEADERSHIP INFLICTED SEVERE CASUALTIES UPON CONFEDERATE FORCES AND OPENED WIDE GAPS IN THEIR LINES, DIRECTLY IMPACTING THE UNION FORCES’ ABILITY TO REPEL PICKETT’S CHARGE”Medal of Honor Citation More than 12,000 Confederate infantrymen, in a battle line 2.4 kilometres wide, strode up the long slopes of Cemetery Ridge south of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. Breaking the stretch of mostly open farmland near the crest of the ridge was a little clump of trees. From a distance, the canopy of summer leaves atop the slender trunks and branches looked like an umbrella. On 3 July 1863, ‘the copse of trees’ was the destination of the Confederate advance and the point where they intended to break through the lines of the Union Army. Just a few meters north of the…

“THE WESSEX BECAME THE WORLD’S FIRST HELICOPTER EQUIPPED WITH A GAS TURBINE TO ENTER SERVICE IN LARGE NUMBERS” WESTLAND WESSEX MANUFACTURER: WESTLAND AIRCRAFT ROLE: ANTI-SUBMARINE; UTILITY MAXIMUM SPEED: 213 KPH MAXIMUM RANGE: 499 KILOMETRES POWER: SINGLE NAPIER GAZELLE OR DUAL DE HAVILLAND GNOME GAS TURBINE ENGINES ARMAMENT: ANTI-SUBMARINE DEPTH CHARGES OR TORPEDOES; 2 PINTLEMOUNTED 7.62MM MACHINE GUNS; NORD ANTI-TANK MISSILES (VARIANT DEPENDENT) CREW: 2 During the mid-1950s, the Royal Navy’s search for a helicopter capable of performing antisubmarine service, with potential for expanded roles, brought the Sikorsky S-58 to the forefront. Originally developed for the US Navy with the military designation of H-34, the helicopter entered US service in 1954. By 1956, Westland Aircraft, which became Westland Helicopters in 1961, had obtained a license to manufacture it. The first pre-production…

“THE GERMANS HAD BEEN READING TRANSMITTED AMERICAN COMMUNICATIONS WITH IMPUNITY, EASILY BREAKING EXISTING CODES” “The enemy’s complete surprise is evidence that he could not decipher the messages,” wrote an excited Colonel AW Bloor of the US Army’s 142nd Infantry Regiment, 36th Division. Bloor had just witnessed a successful assault against a strong German position called the Forest Ferme. He knew that Native American soldiers of the Choctaw tribe had played a significant role in the victory. This action actually took place during World War I, and the first use of code talkers by the US Army occurred in the autumn of 1918 during the Meuse-Argonne Campaign. The Germans had been reading transmitted American communications with impunity, easily breaking existing codes. Other communication methods, including runners and carrier pigeons, encountered battlefield…

HAKKAA PÄÄLLE! Taken: c.1938 Finnish cavalry charge with sabres drawn during a training exercise. During the Winter War, these troops were mainly used for reconnaissance, though their war cry, “Hakkaa päälle,” translated as ‘cut them down’ was still often heard around the conflict’s frozen battlefields. The phrase was first used during the Thirty Years’ War. THE DEATH OF GENERAL WARREN… Painted: c.1815-31 John Trumbull’s famous painting depicts the moment British troops overwhelmed American Rebels at the Battle of Bunker Hill, 17 June, 1775. Joseph Warren had also fought at the Battles of Lexington and Concord just months before his death. WHAT ABOUT BUNNY? Taken: c.1937 British children are photographed demonstrating infant-sized gas masks, as an abandoned stuffed companion lies helpless on the floor. Though war was still not a certainty…

“IF A PISTOL WERE LOADED WITH TOO MUCH GUNPOWDER, IT WAS LIABLE TO BLOW ITSELF OUT OF THE WIELDER’S HAND WHEN FIRED” During the Peninsular War, the British soldier had much to contend with: fighting the French, rampant disease and the harsh rigours of the Iberian climate. In order to help him cope and survive, he was given weapons and equipment that would seem highly impracticable, heavy and cumbersome today. Nonetheless, their individual virtues all helped to secure victory in the Peninsula, although the soldier would have considered himself lucky not to receive wounds that required surgery. BROWN BESS MUSKET A ‘Brown Bess’ was the standard weapon for a British infantryman. Between 1793-1815, around 3 million were produced and variants of the musket had been in use since the early…

“THE KING REPUTEDLY FED HIM ROAST BEEF FROM THE TABLE AND ALLOWED HIM TO SIT IN HIS CHAIR” Part of Rupert’s cavalier persona was his almost foppish ostentation. The prince was known for his fine attire but arguably the most famous part of his appearance was the presence of his constant companion on campaign: his dog. During his years of imprisonment at Linz Castle in Austria, Rupert was given a white hunting poodle by the English ambassador in Vienna. The breed was so rare that it was reputed the Ottoman sultan wanted a similar dog. Rupert called his new pet ‘Boye’ and once he was released, the pair travelled everywhere together. When civil war broke out in 1642, Boye accompanied his master and when Rupert’s fame as a commander grew,…

“WHEN U-BOATS FORMED A LINE AHEAD, THE ROYAL NAVY ATTEMPTED TO CHARGE THROUGH AND DISPERSE THEM. SOME SAILORS BEGAN TO PREFER ROUGH SEAS AS THESE KEPT THE U-BOATS AWAY” The Arctic Convoys’ ‘raison d’être’ came with ‘Barbarossa’, Hitler’s attack on the USSR, commencing 22 June 1941. Stalin immediately demanded help from the Allies. The most direct route was by sea, navigating a narrow ‘funnel’ between the Arctic icepack and German bases in northern Norway, to reach the Soviet ports of Murmansk and Archangel, the latter only being accessible in summer. So from September 1941, ships began the hazardous voyage. British and American chiefs of staff were against this plan, citing stretched resources, but their premiers insisted. One of Churchill’s objectives over 1941-42 was to engage German forces anywhere, so he…

“THERE WAS ONE OLD MAN WHO STOLE A LOAF OF BREAD AND THEY JUST CAME OUT AND SHOT HIM AND CHUCKED HIS BODY IN A LORRY” CAN YOU DESCRIBE THE CONVOY YOU WERE PART OF IN 1943 AND THE STORM YOU ENCOUNTERED? In early February, we were issued with warm clothing but we didn’t realise we were going on a Russian convoy. We went up to Loch Ewe, which was where the convoy was sitting waiting. There were around 30 ships and it was so bleak. I thought “Oh, my goodness!” but before we knew where we were, we set sail. We had a rough voyage and they said it was the worst storm recorded in the North Sea at that time. I was down in the boiler rooms and…

“TODAY, DECADES AFTER THE TURMOIL OF A RUTHLESS MARXIST DICTATORSHIP, ETHIOPIA COULD BE TEETERING ON THE BRINK AS ITS CITIZENS WRESTLE WITH AN INFLEXIBLE ONE-PARTY STATE” Brooding upon the Horn of Africa, spread over jagged mountains and grass-swept plains, is perhaps the oldest nation on Earth. When humankind awoke from its rude cradle, millennia before recorded history, the place we now call Ethiopia was their garden. Harsh yet bountiful, the land’s geography was a haven for early farmers and proud kings. Today, decades after the turmoil of a ruthless Marxist dictatorship, Ethiopia could be teetering on the brink as its citizens wrestle with an inflexible one-party state. But to understand Ethiopia’s discord, one must recognise the four salient features of its historical fabric. First, with an Orthodox Christian heritage influencing…

“INITIAL COMBAT SERVICE OCCURRED IN THE EARLY 1960S DURING AN ARMED CRISIS IN INDONESIA. WESSEX HELICOPTERS OF THE ROYAL NAVY AND RAF SUPPORTED GROUND TROOPS BATTLING GUERRILLA FORCES” Nearly 400 Westland Wessex helicopters in at least a dozen variants were produced for the Royal Navy and RAF from 1958 to 1970. The service life of the Wessex extended until the last were retired from RAF service on the island of Cyprus in 2003. During its military career, the versatile Wessex was involved in anti-submarine, troop carrying and utility operations around the globe. The helicopter engaged in peacetime humanitarian rescue and relief efforts and joint military exercises, as well as frontline operations during wartime. Initial combat service occurred in the early 1960s during an armed crisis in Indonesia. Wessex helicopters of…