Innholdsfortegnelse for AW XVIII.4 i Ancient Warfare Magazine

Surely one of the main interests of military history lies in the human drama that transcends the ages. The big difference between more recent events and ancient military history is that we know far less about the rank and file men in the armies, let alone their life stories. Instead, the emphasis lies on the men at the top, the commanders and generals of what is sometimes called disparagingly ‘big men history’. Somehow it seems just about every issue of Ancient Warfare is at least somewhat dedicated to examining the decisions of these generals and, in that respect, you might think the current theme is somewhat redundant. But we do not generally look at how generals were appointed or how they were taught their trade. While some ancient commanders are…

Archaeologists in the Czech Republic have identified a rare piece of armour dating to the European Early Bronze Age. Brno City Museum has announced that the torso fragment, discovered in South Moravia, is the second known specimen of its kind found in the country. An inconspicuous, folded sheet of bronze was uncovered during excavations in 2023, which involved both archaeologists and amateur detectorists. “Using 3D scanning, we managed to digitally ‘unpack’ the bent sheet metal and identify its shape and decoration,” said archaeologist Aleš Navrátil of the Brno City Museum. The analysis confirmed that the fragment was part of a warrior’s body armour, designed to protect the thorax. The bell-shaped cuirass featured a high collar and simple decoration. Owing to the skill and resources required for its manufacture, it was…

The simplest and most logical explanation is that the telamon can be configured to carry the aspis on the bearer’s back, which is not only attested in artwork, but has been found by reenactors to be both comfortable and practical: slack length is pulled into two shoulder loops at the top of the shield, with the horizontal porpax (the arm band) fitting into the small of the wearer’s back. The various spans of cord between the bronze fittings are, moreover, useful for tucking extra clothing, bedding, or other personal items. Author and AW contributor Paul Bardunias has speculated (http://bit.ly/3KrAnIh) that the telamon might be a vestigial element carried over from an earlier iteration of the shield: a tightly drawn internal truss serving to reinforce a concave shape once made of…

The imperial Chinese envoy and explorer, Zhang Qian, was commissioned by Emperor Wu in 139 BC to explore the lands to the west, to document trade routes of the Silk Road, and find potential allies against the Xiongnu. He spent ten years in captivity under the Xiongnu, however, before escaping and making his way back in 126 BC, when he received the title of Bowang marquis. He then served as a commander under Wei Qing, and together with Huo Qubing, participated in their offensives against the Xiongnu before attempting a second exploratory journey in 115 BC. He discovered India, Parthia, and had a direct encounter with the Hellenistic culture of Alexandria Eschate, located in Ferghana Valley in what is now Uzbekistan, which he called Da Yuan or ‘Great Ionians’. The…

Historiographic accounts of the Roman Republic are, at their core, histories of the Roman elite. Written by aristocratic authors for an aristocratic audience, Roman Republican historiography is dominated by the personal or collective deeds of the Roman nobility. In most cases these elite-driven narratives pose a challenge for historians attempting to form a holistic understanding of Roman society. However, as military command in Rome was the sole prerogative of the elite, when addressing the nature of Republican military leadership these literary accounts provide a wealth of information regarding the command structure of Roman armies, and the responsibilities of generals in the field. The picture of command that emerges from these narratives is certainly not perfect nor complete, but a lot may be gleaned from them nonetheless. Sources for the Second…

What was this strategy? At the isthmus of Corinth, the Greeks considered how to wage war while being greatly outnumbered by Persian soldiers and ships. To prevent Xerxes from moving further south, the Greeks determined to hold the pass at Thermopylae, realising that the Persians would not be able to take advantage of their superior numbers due to the narrow geography. One major problem was foreseen, however: the Greek army might become surrounded if the Persian fleet were able to enter the Malian Gulf and disembark soldiers in the rear of the Greek position at Thermopylae. The Spartan commander at Thermopylae, Leonidas, reassured his allies, however, that “the sea was being guarded and defended by the Athenians, Aeginetans, and other naval contingents” at Artemisium. The strategy to nullify the numerical…

Centurions were a key part of the Imperial Roman army. As well as being excellent fighters in their own right, centurions were chosen for their ability to lead and command, to exercise self-control, and for their efficiency and effectiveness both on and off the battlefield. In many ways, they are presented as the epitome of what a Roman soldier could — and should — have been. The reality is far more complex. Many centurions may have ended up in that position due to their personal connections or having bought the position. The Emperor Hadrian was praised for the fact that during his reign only those who deserved to be centurions were selected for the role, however, which means that centurion status was often not actually a meritocracy. While undoubtedly many…

There were many styles of West Mexican Tomb Shaft pottery, yet for this article we will concentrate on the Ixtlan del Rio and La Playa styles, two closely related art styles dated to around AD 200 AD to AD 600. The Ixtlan del Rio ceramic style originated in Southern Nayarit near modern day Ixtlan del Rio made of red clay painted over with white, black and yellow. This style, notably, is dateable to a period of a few hundred years. Both the detail and size of the figurines varies locally, from only tens of centimetres tall to almost half a metre in size. Unfortunately, due to their abundance, many pieces have ended up on the black market. The La Playa style is a visually similar style of pottery which can…

Demokleides’ stele is probably a commemorative cenotaph rather than a tombstone. It is almost certain that his body would not have been brought home for burial, whether it was lost at sea or not — in general, the Athenian war-dead were never repatriated. Instead, they received a mass cremation on the battlefield, with a small amount of the resulting ash being brought home for a symbolic public funeral and ceremonial burial. While the logistics of these mass cremations has been questioned in recent years, there is little disagreement over the lack of repatriation. The stele of Demokleides marked an empty grave; perhaps his sad gaze in the image was directed towards the home he would never return to.…

Sun Tzu (or Sun Zi) was a commander and military theorist who is traditionally dated to ca. 544-496 BC during the Spring and Autum Period of Chinese history (ca. 770-481 BC). He is regarded as the author of the highly influential Art of War. This may have been presented to king Helu (or Helü) of Wu (r. 514-495 BC). However, the text may be later and there is some doubt if Sun Tzu was a real person at all. For example, the traditional dates for his lifespan make him an almost exact contemporary with the philosopher Confucius (551-479 BC). The text may date to a century later, in which case it is, peculiarly and intriguingly, contemporary to the first Greek works in the art of war in the early 4th…

Archaeologists have identified what may be the first infant burial within a Roman military context discovered in the Iberian Peninsula. The study, by the Universities of Burgos and León, examined remains excavated in 2006 at the base of Legio VI Victrix in León, Spain. The legion was deployed to Hispania Tarraconensis in 29 BC to control key routes through the Asturian mountains. In Sector 1 of the site, a perinatal burial was found beneath the floor of a contubernium workshop, placed under a Roman roof tile near a doorway. While infant burials in tegulae were a common funerary practice, their presence within a military camp is considered highly unusual. Analysis suggests the infant was carried to term at 38–42 weeks; however, skeletal development indicated poor nutrition or illness during gestation.…

Hutchinson explores the career of Xenophon, the celebrated commander, historian and essayist, and one-time pupil of the Athenian philosopher Socrates. Elected commander of the surviving Greek forces after the battle of Cunaxa in 401 BC, Xenophon led the men out of the hostile territory. He recorded all this in his Anabasis and Hutchinson uses Xenophon's writings to explore, thematically, the timeless themes of command. These include morale, life in camp and ‘on the march’, secrecy, spies and battle tactics. Hutchinson’s work can be used alongside other works which explore the art of command, and these can be compared with more recent titles which look at the same subject through a modern lens. What the reader will discover is that the art of command, in whatever age, remains remarkably similar across…

The heart of a Greek aspis (or "Argive shield") was its approximately one metre-diameter wooden core. This was made from butted planks or laminated slats of willow or poplar in the shape of a shallow bowl with a narrow offset rim. The interior could be leather-lined for comfort, with the exterior faced in linen, hide, or bronze for protection. The outside might be painted or have appliques attached. The bearer wielded this unusually heavy shield (perhaps 12-18lbs) by thrusting his left arm through a central bronze band (the porpax) and gripping a braided handle near the rim (the antilabe). The shield's concave shape allowed the bearer to rest the rim on his shoulder while also serving (per Paul Bardunias in Hoplites at War) to protect his diaphragm in the otherwise…

This marble sarcophagus is also carved in deep relief and depicts a battle between Romans and Barbarians; in this case, Roman cavalry ride down and defeat enemy cavalry and, on each corner, we find a winged victory with a bound barbarian beneath. The Romans are all shown in muscled cuirasses and with a variety of helmet styles (including a ringed example on the central Roman figure). They were originally armed with both swords and spears. The barbarians are mostly unhorsed and all shown naked although on the low-relief side panels especially there are accurate, geometrically varied shields and three figures carry curved sica blades. These were the curved weapons typical of the Dacians, many of which have been found in the archaeological record. Most of the barbarians have their hair…

PARMENION SON OF PHILOTAS ca. 400–330 BC One of Philip II’s favoured commanders, Parmenion was instrumental in defeating the Illyrians in 356 BC. As Philip’s second in command, he was sent on various missions around Greece. In 336 BC, Parmenion was sent in advance into Asia with 10,000 men to prepare for the king’s invasion. After Philip's death, Parmenion remained with his army, loyal to Alexander. During the invasion of Asia, Parmenion was second in command, holding the left wing, while Alexander commanded the right. He fought at the battles of the Granicus, the Issus, and Gaugamela. He also led separate expeditions, such as subduing central Anatolia and capturing Tarsus. He was assassinated on Alexander’s orders in 330 BC. ANTIPATER SON OF IOLSOS ca. 400–319 BC Antipater was one of…

King Helu commanded Sun Tzu him to demonstrate his abilities by taking the king’s harem of 180 concubines and training them in military drill. Sun Tzu appointed the two favourites as captains and placed each in command of a company. They were given spears and Sun Tzu explained the orders he would give. The captains agreed that they would obey. When Sun Tzu issued the orders, however, the concubines fell about laughing. He explained the orders again but once more the concubines laughed. Sun Tzu admonished them – when a general’s orders are unclear, disobedience is the general’s fault but, when orders are clear, blame for disobedience falls on the officers. He ordered the execution of the two captains for disobedience. The king attempted to prevent the execution of his…

Many centurions were promoted from the ranks. They started off as ordinary soldiers (gregales — "from the herd") and worked their way up the system, rather than coming in as a distant officer class. Centurions provided a link between the strategic command at the top of the legion and the men who would be required to carry out the orders given. It was a rank that many were proud of attaining, with the symbols of their status — especially the vine-staff that only centurions were allowed to carry — often featuring in the funerary imagery of their tombstones. It also came with a much higher rate of pay, and better service conditions. One of the primary tasks of the centurion was to prepare his soldiers for the chaos of the…

Due to the inherent religious pollution which characterised the work of those in death-related occupations, such workers as undertakers, gravediggers, and professional mourners were required to reside outside the Esquiline Gate, close to the Grove of Libitina near the mass-graves of the poor. Executioners were likewise required to reside there. The carnifex, however, would be considered particularly sordidus, in part as he profited from his work, but especially because of the responsibility which he bore for the deaths which he inflicted. It was not because they committed state-sanctioned murder; according to Roman law, individuals condemned to death were ceremonially devoted to a deity, thus making them homo sacer and so lawful to be killed. Instead, the disgust and repulsion felt towards the carnifex stemmed from his role in expelling condemned…

The Northern Routes to Kingship A History of Scandinavia AD 180-550 By Dagfinn Skre ISBN: 978-1138831384 Routledge (2025) - £39.99 www.routledge.com Although the history of Scandinavia in the period AD 180–550 is somewhat liminal in terms of Roman history, it is nonetheless fascinating and shows, perhaps, the long arm of Rome. Skre’s main argument is that, from around AD 200 onwards, Scandinavian society underwent profound changes — runic writing was conceived (the futhark), the first buildings were erected, market sites were established, new burial practices were adopted. The number of Roman items in graves surged, suggesting a close connection with the Roman Empire. Within three centuries, kingship emerged and Skre argues (differing from previous scholarship) that these changes came about from the arrival (or return) of units of Germanic auxilia…

The tips of wooden piles of a Roman bridge dating back more than 2000 years have been uncovered by archaeologists in Switzerland. At a construction site in Aegerten, staff of the Archaeological Service unearthed more than 300 oak piles preserved in groundwater. The bridge once crossed the Zihl River and stood at the gates of Petinesca (modern Studen), part of an important road that led eastward through the Swiss Plateau via the Helvetic capital of Aventicum (Avenches). Dendrochronological analysis revealed that the bridge was repeatedly repaired over the four centuries it was in use. The earliest sections date to around 40 BC, soon after Rome’s subjugation of the Helvetii under Julius Caesar in 58 BC. The latest phase dates to AD 369, under Emperor Valentinian, when the region was increasingly…

Han China expanded its borders, bringing independent states and kingdoms under permanent Chinese control through the deployment of a large, powerful military in aggressive campaigns. Ultimately, imperial expansion allowed the Han Dynasty to rule a domain larger in area than even that of the Roman Empire. For all the strength and prosperity the Han Dynasty achieved, however, the empire was not without its troubles. Yet the greatest threat of all came not from within the empire, but from beyond its borders. A dynasty under threat Chinese civilization had always been under constant attack by ‘barbarians’ in the northern territories. By the time of the Han Dynasty, a confederation of mounted nomadic warriors, occupying much of what is now Mongolia, posed an existential threat to the Chinese empire. They were called…

The right man for the job — except in a very few famous examples were a woman led the army — was generally qualified by virtue of birth. In any monarchy, the king was the obvious war-leader. It was a requirement of his position that he defend his kingdom. Moreover, in early societies the king was often the conduit for divine favour, and denying that favour to the army by his absence on the battlefield was obviously anathema to success. Only later did kings appoint generals to fight their campaigns. Still, strict control and oversight remained necessary. The history of the Roman Empire is, after all, replete with examples of armies who preferred to see their own general on the throne rather than an emperor who did nothing to ensure…

After withdrawing from Artemisium, Themistocles instructed the sailors of the Allied fleet to write slogans on the cliffs of Euboea and mainland Greece at watering posts, encouraging the Ionian sailors to defect (Herodotus 8.22). Themistocles reasoned that, even if the Ionians remained loyal to their Persian overlords, the messages would sow the seeds of mistrust in the minds of Xerxes and the Persians: “Men of Ionia, you do wrongly to fight against the land of your fathers and bring slavery upon Hellas. It were best of all that you should join yourselves to us; but if that be impossible for you, then do you even now withdraw yourselves from the war, and entreat the Carians to do the same as you. If neither of these things may be, and you…

For centuries, the Zhou dynasty’s control of China had gradually dissipated, drastically weakening after the royal court’s move to the east in the eighth century. The waning of the Zhou dynasty’s power is best demonstrated by the breakaway of the state of Chu in the ninth century, followed by that of Wu and, later, Yue. Chu came to dominate much of southeastern China, and the state of Wu, located at the mouth of the Yangtze River, was initially a vassal of Chu. In 584, however, Wu rebelled against Chu, and became a thorn in Chu’s side, encouraging similar rebellions among Chu’s other vassal states. The two states fought ten wars against one another, with Wu mostly coming out on top. Sun Tzu According to Sima Qian’s biography of Sun Tzu…

When the Second Punic War began in 218 BC, Hannibal stunned the Romans by leading his army in a rapid march from Spain, through southern France, over the Alps, and into northern Italy. Despite being greatly outnumbered by the Romans and their allies, he succeeded in utterly crushing them in four successive battles, including the disastrous Battle of Cannae in 216 BC. After such staggering losses, Fabius Maximus ‘the Delayer’ developed a new strategy (for the Romans) of shadowing Hannibal’s movements, avoiding battles but preventing him from gaining resources or capturing Italian cities (see Ray, AW XVI.4). While the Romans appeared incapable of defeating Hannibal and pushing him out of Italy, Fabius Maximus’ strategy limited his ability to capitalize on his many victories. Disaster and recovery This was a disastrous…

Stelae dedicated to Greeks who died in battle can often seem quite minimalist, especially if you are familiar with tombstones dedicated to Roman soldiers. They are often short on words, doing little more than name the dead soldier. They may, however, feature elaborate portraits of the deceased, sometimes (but not always) in a combat scene. With a few exceptions, Classical Greek soldiers were not professionals — if their deaths had come in warfare, then they would be commemorated as a soldier. A casualty of war A powerful example is the grave stele of Demokleides, son of Demetrios, a young man who was presumably from Athens (or Attica), given the location of the stele’s discovery. It is short on words — all the inscription reveals is his name and that of…

UNDERSTANDING ANCIENT BATTLE: COMBAT IN THE CLASSICAL WORLD FROM THE UNIT COMMANDER'S PERSPECTIVE By Hugh Elton Pen & Sword Press, 2024 ISBN: 978-1526753979 Elton here examines the battle of the officer – how units manoeuvred and fought in different periods. Elton analyses the interaction of equipment, morale, leadership, and terrain in a series of case studies of twenty-four battles which include Marathon, Issus, Cannae, Cynoscephalae, Mons Graupius, and Adrianople. THE CLASSICAL ART OF COMMAND: EIGHT GREEK GENERALS WHO SHAPED THE HISTORY OF WARFARE By Joseph Roisman Oxford University Press, 2017 ISBN: 978-0199985821 Roisman takes great Greek commanders and examines their careers for the marks they left on their own states and on warfare more generally. Exploring the design and execution of these generals’ campaigns, Roisman also emphasises the importance of…