Innholdsfortegnelse for AW XVII.3 i Ancient Warfare Magazine

“Half of ancient history” - that’s how Jona Lendering, founding editor of Ancient History and webmaster of Livius.org, qualified Rome to me some years ago. When it comes to the available sources — texts, inscriptions, archaeology — all put together, he’s probably right. Certainly we know lots more about the nuts and bolts of the Roman army than any other ancient armed force. The irony, of course, is that even for Rome, we’re still desperately short of data to resolve many burning questions. For us here, a large group of those questions concern the enemies of Rome. The list is long and distinguished, as they say, and for the large majority, we may have archaeological information and what the Romans tell us about these foes, with all possible consequences of…

Archaeologists working in the ‘Gomila’ area of Zakotorac on Croatia’s Pelješac peninsula have unearthed a 2,500-year-old ‘Illyriantype’ helmet. The newly discovered bronze helmet has been dated to the 6th century BC. The helmet, damaged at the top, may have been a votive offering. It was uncovered in a dry stone-walled addition to a grave. The find follows the discovery of a similar helmet in 2020 by the same team just 10 metres from the new findspot. That piece of equipment is typical of 4th century BC Greece and Illyria. It likely belonged to a warrior as it was found in a grave alongside iron weapons. “What is very interesting is that two different types appear here in the same place, which speaks of a continuity of power of the respective…

SPECIAL There now exists a sort of folk history of the phalanx, in which the scanty information we have has been supplemented by guesses and assumptions that are often stated with more certainty than they really deserve. The purpose of this article is to point out a few of these myths, though it will not be possible in these pages to provide complete refutations of every myth mentioned. In fact, it may also be that some of the myths are true, or are based on the truth, as myths often are. This article is intended rather to warn the reader that not everything we think we know about the phalanx is based on firm foundations. Long sarissa, short sarissa The sarissa was the great Macedonian two-handed spear or pike that…

Romanian archaeologists have found many artefacts that give a comprehensive image of the equipment of Dacian warriors. These artefacts are similar to, or even the same as, the pieces sculpted on Trajan’s Column, suggesting that its depictions of Dacian warriors are not just stereotypes. Dress and equipment We know the Dacians wore long shirts down to their knees, split on the sides, and with long sleeves. The trousers were a tight fit, they wore leather footwear, and the nobles wore the so-called pileus, a conical cap representing the status of being a free man. Cloaks were worn against the weather, but were another means for nobles to show their wealth; they were tied with fibulae made of gold or silver, some with intricate carvings and perhaps even precious stones. Clothes…

One of the ways in which Rome ensured peace with potential enemies which is (perhaps unsurprisingly) not emphasised in the sources, was by paying them off. Domitian’s peace with Dacia included an annual stipend -Trajan may have ceased paying it which led to renewed war. Payments continued (often only suggested in the sources) - and we find them mentioned in the Hun campaigns especially. This, of course, tied into the Hun desire for gold - the survival of many Hun ornaments in gold (and garnet) testify to how desirable a metal it was to them. On at least three occasions (and probably more) the only way the Romans could secure peace with the Huns was by agreeing to pay them a tribute in gold. This tribute increased in size each…

The two infantry figures fighting on one of the smaller plaques are depicted in similar skirted, high neck-guard heavy armour. Both hold lances with two hands and wear crested helmets - that is, they are armed and armoured as the cavalry figures are, but they fight on foot. It has been suggested that the spears were of different lengths - i.e. an infantry spear and a cavalry spear - but dismounted cavalry better suits the men’s overall appearance. The left figure wears a gorytos quiver on his right hip, and the right figure wears a scabbard on his left, so they are differentiated. We are often told that nomadic and cavalry-based cultures were useless or lost when not mounted - Ammianus, for instance, says the Huns are “glued to their…

In her long history, Rome faced many enemies; from the cities next door in her early history to the other peoples of Italy as she expanded throughout the Italian Peninsula. When Rome made its first attempts at an overseas empire in the third century BC, however, she came into contact more and more with ‘barbarian’ enemies of other cultures who were initially there to be conquered but who, eventually, looked with envious eyes towards the wealth and luxury of the empire as things that should be plundered and taken. Others looked to assist Rome and gain whatever advantages they could that way and Rome, ever malleable, welcomed such assistance and even adapted and adopted those features she thought best. The ‘gates’ of Rome therefore expanded to be wherever the borders…

MORE ONLINE Read more about these findings: https://bit.ly/44W2Hsk In 1916, workers found bones in gravel from the shore of Barmfjorden, Norway. The remains, dating back 4,000 years, belonged to a young man. Found alongside the bones at Fausland farm on Hitra island were a dagger and an arm guard, indicating the man might have been a warrior. The reason for his demise remains unknown, however. As the sea level was much higher, he may have drowned. This era marked a significant transition. Previously, most people were huntergatherers. Agriculture only took hold in Norway during the Hitra man’s lifetime. “We believe that agriculture was introduced by migrating people who arrived in Norway to get more land — and they were willing to use weapons to do so. We must therefore expect…

Diodorus gives credit to Philip of Macedon for the creation of the phalanx (16.3.1-2), but there is an account that someone else was responsible. A fragment of the fourth century BC historian Anaximenes of Lampsacus credits the reforms of the Macedonian military to an Alexander (Phillippica fragment 4). The question is: which one? It could be Alexander % Philip’s eldest brother who was king of Macedon 370-368. Anaximenes includes the details in the naming of the cavalry as the Companions and of using those of highest honour to fill its ranks, and naming the Foot Companions (pezhetairoi). He also talks of the division of the infantry into companies and files and other commands. The earliest known naming of the pezhetairoi is in a speech by Demosthenes (Second Olynthiac 17). Anaximenes…

A proper declaration of war, performed by the fetiales priests (see also AWVII.3), was essential for Rome. Without a reasonable justification, going to war was nefas, morally wrong and liable to be punished by the gods. The list of allowed reasons for going to war was well-defined and fairly limited. Rome was allowed to seek redress if it had been done an injury, e.g. Roman territory or citizens had been robbed or plundered (clearly a law going back to a very early stage in Roman history). This was also valid for Roman allies - if one of them had been treated similarly, Rome was justly allowed to go to war, come to the defence of its ally, and settle the affair. Rome might even take away the ability to fight…

The revolts of the early Imperial period were not the first time that Rome had found itself waging war against its former allies. A century earlier, many of Rome’s Italian city-state allies had rebelled, leading to the outbreak of the Social War in 91 BC (the bellum sociale; or the Italian War). These allies had been contributing a significant amount of manpower, outnumbering Romans on the battlefield by the third century BC. While the allies enjoyed some benefits, they also faced increasing Roman interference in domestic affairs, and had not been granted citizenship. Some were fighting to free themselves of Rome, while others were aiming to gain Roman citizen status for their population. Appian (Civil War 1.39) claims that 100,000 infantry and cavalry mobilised, and initial operations were able to…

While the Arsacid Empire of the Parthians inflicted the famous defeat of the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC, by the second and early-third century AD, the balance of military power had shifted. Between AD 116-200, three campaigns under the emperors Trajan, Marcus Aurelius, and Septimius Severus had inflicted heavy defeats on the Parthians (see also issue III.5). However, in the opening quarter of the third century, the geopolitical situation changed again. The Arsacid Parthians were replaced as rulers of Iran by a new dynasty. Based in the region of Fars, the heartland of the Achaemenid Empire, the Sasanian dynasty would rise to power and successfully challenge the Arsacids for control. By the AD 230s, Ardashir I had established his control and begun to attack the eastern frontier of Rome.…

SPECIAL The Roman army is often considered an invincible, unstoppable war machine that crushed any group, no matter how large, that was foolish enough to stand in its way. Cohort after cohort of hardfaced heroes in gleaming armour, ploughing their way through a disorganized horde of long-haired, screaming barbarians, helpless to stop the pre-determined success of the Roman Empire as it extended its tendrils to the limits of the known world. Reality, however, was something rather different, and certainly something altogether more complex. The Roman military suffered many losses in its long history, including some rather significant ones. Sometimes these losses also had serious ramifications for the future, inducing a level of anxiety in Roman officials regarding the stability of the empire. They worried about the future of the Roman…

A 2,700-year-old Pre-Roman-period necropolis has been discovered by archaeologists during excavations in Campania, Italy. The large Iron Age cemetery is spread across 13,000 square metres (140,000 square feet) of open space. A total of 88 cinerary and inhumation tombs, complete with grave goods, identified the occupants as members of the pre-Samnite Culture. The necropolis is distinguished by a rich collection of burial goods. The grave goods also show distinct gender differences. The men’s tombs contained weapons, while the women’s tombs were richly adorned with bronze decorations such as fibulae, bracelets, pendants, amber, and worked bone pieces. Both men and women were buried with pottery of various shapes and sizes, usually placed at the feet of the deceased. Some burials were notable for the exceptional objects, for example, a large, richly…

Before the Storm Mike Duncan’s Before the Storm, tracing “the beginning of the end of the Roman Republic”, explores a relatively neglected period in Roman military history but one which set the scene for what was to follow. In an accessible narrative Duncan explores the period from 146 BC (and the destruction of both Carthage and Corinth) down until 78 BC and the death of Sulla. This period not only saw the wars of Caius Marius and the creation of the Late Republican legionary, but also important wars in Spain, the east and elsewhere. Not to mention developments (or upheavals) in politics and the social organization of Rome that made what followed possible. This generation brought about what we are more familiar with from the First Triumvirate until the victory…

One of the problematic aspects of ancient descriptions of the Hellenistic phalanx, apart from their rarity, is the use of classical allusion. Polybius, who was familiar with the late Hellenistic phalanx being a general of the Achaean League in the second century BC, considered that it was Homer who had described its workings perfectly. Polybius quotes Iliad 13.130-133 after his account of Cynoscephalae (18.29.5-6) for Homer’s “true and fine” description of the phalanx: “fencing spear (dory) with spear, and shield (aspis) pressed on shield; helmet against helmet, and man on man; and the horsehair crests on the bright helmet-ridges touched each other as the men moved their heads, in such close array stood they by one another.” Evocative though this is, it is of little practical help to us for…

THEME: Enemies of Rome Livy describes all the major conflicts in his history of Rome, including the Samnite wars, while illustrating the norms and values of Rome’s adversaries and their military characteristics. The following description is probably the most extensive source about Samnite equipment: The enemy, besides their other warlike preparations, had made their battle-line to glitter with new and splendid arms. There were two corps: the shields of the one were inlaid with gold, of the other with silver. The shape of the shield was this: the upper part, where it protected the breast and shoulders, was rather broad, with a level top; below it was somewhat tapering, to make it easier to handle. They wore a sponge to protect the breast, and the left leg was covered with…

The solution to Tacfarinas’ revolt raises several fascinating points to consider for wider imperial history. Africa was a non-military province but needed a vir militaris to deal with the unprecedented military threat. In AD 21, Tiberius advised the senate to choose a proconsul extra sortem who was “an experienced commander and physically fit for active service” (Tacitus Annales 3.32). There were several candidates but the man chosen was Quintus Junius Blaesus who had been consul in AD 10 (he was also the uncle of Praetorian Prefect Sejanus). Blaesus had served in Pannonia and during the Great Illyrian Revolt, AD 6-9 and as the governor of Sicily during Augustus’ reign. The military pedigree and time elapsed since his consulship also set something of a precedent for appointing military men extra sortem…

We do have examples of silverware buried in Naissus, perhaps as the Huns approached or sacked the city in 443. A set of five silver plates celebrating the tenth anniversary of Licinius I (therefore dating to AD 318) were found in Niš in 1901. It is possible that these were buried during the Gothic wars of the later fourth century. However, the Goths in the fourth century avoided sieges or were unsuccessful in those they attempted. The city was also not reoccupied immediately and lost large portions of its population after the Hunnic sack in 443, making it a better candidate for such unrecovered wealth. A bronze head of Constantine was also found during bridge construction in 1900 on the bank of the River Nišava and may also represent other…

The plaques were found in a barrow burial at Orlat, a necropolis close to the fortified city of Kurgantepa, northwest of Samarkand. In it, two bodies, a man and a woman, were inhumed. The grave had been looted, so the plaques were not in their original position. Some other items buried with the bodies were also removed, although the remains of a sword, scabbard, dagger and scabbard, parts of a bow, and arrowheads were still in situ. The plaques are usually dated within the period of decline during all the turmoil of Samarkand changing hands between various dominating cultures - from the second century BC to as late as the fifth century AD. However, no consensus has been reached on the date, culture, function, or even description of the plaques.…

REVIEWS By Nic Fields ISBN: 978-1472854919 Osprey Campaign (2023) - £16.99 www.ospreypublishing.com The latest ancient-themed Campaign title (393) covers the wars of Caius Marius against the Cimbri and Teutones, with illustrations by Johnny Shumate. Off the bat, the sub-title ‘the Rise of Caius Marius’ seems misplaced - Marius had already risen. Caius Marius, a novus homo from Arpinum, was born in 157 BC and gained his first consulship in 107 BC and then (somewhat unexpectedly) brought the Jugurthine War to a close the following year. Sallust reminds us at the conclusion of his Jugurthine War (114), that Marius was regarded as the sole hope of Rome in 105 BC. He was declared consul (his second in only three years) even though he was absent from the city, granted a triumph…

By Raffaele D’Amato ct Stephen Pollington ISBN: 978-1472855350 Osprey Elite (2023) - 14.99 www.ospreypublishing.com Following on from Post-Roman Kingdoms: ‘Dark Ages’ Gaul & Britain, AD 450-800 (reviewed in AW 16.2) comes the sequel (of sorts) covering the period 400 to 1070. Here, D’Amato’s authorial partner is Anglo-Saxon expert Stephen Pollington, and the art plates are by Raffaele Ruggeri. As is immediately apparent, this title mostly crosses over with the previous one and it tells us much about the confusing period between the end of Roman Britain and the beginning of the AngloSaxon Period. That this same period can include post-Roman kingdoms and early Anglo-Saxon kings and warlords will be confusing to some. It also tells us that, often it depends on your perspective - it is the end of one…

readings Want to learn more about all the various tribes, kingdoms, and empires that Rome ended up butting heads with over the centuries? Here are a few book and articles that you can check out. PUBLIUS QUINCTILIUS VARUS: THE MAN WHO LOST THREE ROMAN LEGIONS IN THE TEUTOBURG DISASTER By Joanne Ball Pen & Sword, 2023 ISBN: 978-1399088329 The new goto volume for Teutoburg, Ball revisits ancient sources alongside the most recent archaeological evidence from the Teutoburg battlefield in Germany, where she has been personally involved in excavations. The result is a fresh, detailed new analysis of this significant battle and a reappraisal of the Roman commander. ROME AND PERSIA IN LATE ANTIQUITY: NEIGHBOURS AND RIVALS By Beate Dignas and Engelbert Winter Cambridge University Press, 2007 ISBN: 978-0521614078 The Sasanian…