Innholdsfortegnelse for AH 54 i Ancient History Magazine

In the modern, developed world, the mystery and power of rivers has mostly been reduced to a byway for slow-moving bulk goods and expensive leisure vessels. However, nature occasionally reminds us of the power and importance of rivers, often with tragic consequences. Floods can be devastating, causing terrible damage, while droughts can cause famines with long-lasting consequences. In the ancient world, people were more than aware of the importance of rivers. They brought much-needed drinking water, they watered crops, and they served as natural defences and highways. Without modern technology, even with the relatively advanced engineering of ancient Rome, floods were frequent, and famines were even more dangerous. As such, rivers were given far more respect, they were even revered as gods in their own right. There are so many…

If Enheduanna were the daughter of Sargon of Akkad, and she lived long enough to see the rebellion against her nephew, Naram-Sin, Enheduanna may have witnessed the rise and what must have looked like the fall of the Old Akkadian Empire. According to various sources of questionable reliability, such as the Sumerian King List, Sargon started life in the city of Kish, possibly the cupbearer of Ur-Zababa, the king of Kish. He likely usurped power from Ur-Zababa, taking the throne name Sharru-kin (Sargon), meaning ‘the king is legitimate’. He then gradually expanded his rule to encompass nearly all of Mesopotamia, claiming to have reached the Lower Sea (the Perian Gulf), and beyond, referring to the cedar forests of Lebanon in one inscription. Control of this vast empire was not easy…

As many historians have noted, the advantageous topography of the Tiber valley made it an ideal site for a flourishing city. It is the widest valley in the Italian peninsula, with the river creating a series of rich floodplains. The famous ‘Seven Hills of Rome’, where there is evidence of settlement from at least the eighth century BC, sit on the southern bank of this great meandering river. For the first settlers of the site, the combination of these hills and the fast-flowing river created not only an agriculturally rich site for development, but one with added security, as the river warded off attacks from across it and the hills offered a vantage point from which to watch for threats. In a similar manner, the hills constituted convenient retreats from…

Vindobona – modern Vienna – was a major Roman settlement on the upper Danube. The earliest Roman evidence suggests that an auxiliary camp stood there as early as the reign of Claudius (AD 43–54). Around AD 97, a permanent legionary base was established, which served as a major logistical center during Trajan’s Dacian wars. In AD 114, Legio X Gemina was stationed at Vidobona, and the site would remain its headquarters until at least the later fourth century. Vindobona’s civilian population outside the walls grew rapidly during the second century. At the same time, a Germanic settlement sprang up on the opposite side of the river: clear evidence that the fort functioned as an important nexus for trade north into Bohemia. During the chaos of the so-called Third Century Crisis…

When Sargon II wanted to construct a palace – known as Dur-Sharrukin, or ‘Fortress of Sargon’ – for himself, he had building materials shipping from all across the Assyrian Empire. Wood was floated downriver from the northern mountains, while stone was shipped on boats and rafts. Thanks to the Assyrians’ preference for writing on durable clay tablets, we have plenty of surviving correspondences from Assyrian regional governors who were responsible for the sourcing of building materials. Based on the reports in these letters, it seems that the riverine vessels used to transport the wood and stone were not of the best quality, with governors rushing to have them constructed. One vessel, which was transporting a lamassu statue to stand before the gates of the city, sank under the weight of…

There are several accounts of the foundation of Tarentum. The main accounts are those of the fifth-century-BC historian Antiochus of Syracuse, the fourthcentury-BC historian Ephorus of Cyme (both of their accounts are recorded in Strabo, 6.3.2–3), and the first-century-BC historian Diodorus of Sicily (8.21). They all roughly agree that the founders of Tarentum were disenfranchised subjects of Sparta, that they were willing to start a civil war against Sparta which was averted through the foundation of Tarentum, and that they were led by Phalanthus. Where the sources differ, however, is the social status of the founders. Spartans and slaves According to Antiochus of Syracuse, the Partheniae – the most common term for the founders of Tarentum -were simply those Spartans born during the Messenian War. He infers that they may…

Adopting Egyptian techniques and motifs for portraiture was not a new practice in Kleopatra’s reign. It was only one of many tactics in the Ptolemies’ arsenal designed to endear themselves to their Egyptian subjects. Ptolemy Soter, the first of the Ptolemaic dynasty, quickly established himself as conforming to Egyptian cultural practices. In addition to adopting Egyptianizing portraiture, he also presented himself as a protector of the Egyptians. The first thing he did was amplify the misdeeds of Cleomenes, who was, effectively, the Macedonian governor of Egypt under Alexander. His tenure as governor was characterized by Arrian as one of “many grievous wrongs” (Anabasis 7.23.6), which likely included profiteering from famine and abusing Egyptian priesthoods for money (Pseudo-Aristotle, Oeconomicus 2.1352). Arrian even cites a letter supposedly from Alexander acknowledging Cleomenes’ abuses…

Horses from North Africa were renowned for both their speed and their endurance in ancient Rome. For example, Diocles, one of the most successful charioteers in Roman history, said he was the best driver of African horses specifically. The peoples of pre-Roman North Africa had a long history of horsemanship. Notably, the Numidians were renowned for their light cavalry, contingents of which were key elements of the armies of the Punic Wars, often helping one army to victory. Horsemanship was such a core element of Numidian identity that a depiction of a horseman featured on most, if not all, Numidian coinage. Similarly, among the Gaetuli, according to Strabo, “horse-breeding is followed with such exceptional interest by the kings that the number of colts every year amounts to one hundred thousand”…

Marcus Aurelius The Stoic Emperor By Donald J. Roberston ISBN: 978-0300280142 Yale University Press (2024) - $26.00 yalebooks.yale.edu Marcus Aurelius is one of the most recognizable names from ancient history. While he reigned for just nineteen years (AD 161–180), he nevertheless left a lasting impression. Indeed, the emperor has enjoyed a revival in more recent years. In this latest biography of the Roman emperor, Donald J. Robertson (who has previously written on Marcus Aurelius’ philosophy), according to the publisher, “weaves together Marcus’ inner journey as a philosopher with the outer events of his life as a Roman emperor”. In Robertson’s concise and unadorned text, Marcus Aurelius emerges as an affable, humane, kind, emotionally sensitive, introspective, and affectionate individual. We witness him raised by his devoted but widowed ‘Little Mother’ Domitia…

Enheduanna is the world’s first known individually named author. She was born into royalty as the daughter of the famous king, Sargon of Akkad, in 2285 BC. Enheduanna lived in Ur, an area located in modern-day southern Iraq. Sargon, her father, was the first ruler to unite northern and southern Mesopotamia. In doing so, he created the Old Akkadian Empire, which is often described as the world’s first empire. Enheduanna lived during a period of great social, religious, and political upheaval, and in her role as a priestess, she would have been involved in shaping these changes. Masterpieces from Mesopotamia The world of ancient Mesopotamia was home to numerous literary masterpieces. These include the world’s first tragic epic, Gilgamesh, the Babylonian creation narrative, Enuma Elish, and the early flood story,…

The problem was what version of Christianity would ultimately receive imperial support? For the leaders of the Christian faith, primarily bishops, any relationship with the empire was a fraught one. While currying the emperor’s favour and gaining access to his court was a desirable outcome, many Christians were at odds with one another and undecided on how imperial leaders might gain influence over or participate in the faith. The mercurial attitudes of emperors had proven disastrous for Christians in the past but also had the potential, at least in theory, to unify a frequently divided Christian minority. Constantine’s new age of tolerance introduced a high-stakes game that exaggerated divisions among Christian factions. New enemies appeared to lurk everywhere as more and more Christian leaders sought out opportunities to gain power,…

It has long been recognized that the Latin for ‘priest’ (pontifex) bears a close similarity to the Latin for ‘bridge’ (pons). This connection was even noted in ancient Rome. Varro, in his work On the Latin Language, connects the two words, noting how the priests were the first to construct the pons sublicius and were responsible for any subsequent repairs (5.83). However, in the same passage, Varro notes how Quintus Scaevola, the pontifex maximus after 90 BC, connected pontifex with the Latin words posse (‘to be able’) and facere (‘to do’). Dionysius of Halicarnassus seems to agree with Varro, echoing his statement that priests first built the pons sublicius (2.73.1). Yet Plutarch doubts this connection (Numa 9.2). Writers in Late Antiquity would also favour the pons-pontifex connection. Some modern writers have…

In the modern world, it is unusual to travel by water, especially rivers. There are, of course, river cruises, and larger rivers, like the Danube, still have large vessels shipping goods, not to mention smaller pleasure craft, but we tend, nowadays, to travel by land. However, in the ancient world, from the Tigris to the Tiber, rivers were packed with riverine craft transporting goods and people from one place to another. The Nile The most famous river from antiquity, by far, is the Nile. Stretching uninterrupted for 1200 km from the First Cataract to the Mediterranean Sea, the river dominated the landscape, and this is reflected in early art from the region. Nilotic scenes featuring crocodiles, hippopotami, and river birds are a common motif on Naqada I–II pottery from the…

The River Thames, flowing through London, has yielded several treasures of Celtic art. Dredging of the river at Battersea in 1857, for example, yielded a spectacular bronze shield decorated in the distinctive ‘La Tène’ style; characterized by complex, swirling abstract patterns formed of curvilinear lines and curls. Another antiquarian find, from further east along the river, close to Waterloo Bridge, comprised a dramatic horned helmet, decorated in the same distinctive style. Both items, though redolent of violence and warfare, were made of thin sheet-bronze and had probably been produced as ceremonial rather than functional pieces. They had not been lost in the river through the chaos of battle, but had instead been deliberately given up to the gods in the last few centuries of the first millennium BC. Yet these…

The ludi (from ludus, meaning ‘game’, ‘sport’, or ‘play’) were public games held to benefit and entertain the Roman people. Ludi were held in association with the major religious festivals and were also presented in connection with the cult of the Roman state. Chariot races held in the circus (ludi circenses) were the earliest and longest-lived of all the forms of public games in the Roman world. Unfortunately, we will never fully understand the chariot races of the Regal period because the historical record is incomplete. During the Republican era, chariot races in Rome were part of the program of the main public games, such as the Ludi Romani in honour of Jupiter in September, celebrated for the first time in 491 BC, but only annually from 392 or 366…

Julia was born amid the political tumult of Caesar’s early career. The civil war between Sulla and Marius had just ended. In the aftermath, Sulla faced the question of how to deal with the remaining members of Marius’ caucus. He decided to target the lifeblood of their political alliances – their marriages. Sulla forced his opponents to divorce and reorganized them into engagements with his daughters, nieces, and granddaughters. In doing so, he destroyed long-standing political alliances, weakened what remained of Marius’ family, and forced significant figures into his sphere of influence. The famous general and Julia’s future husband, Pompey, fell victim to Sulla’s marriage tactics. It was in Sulla’s interest to forge closer ties with him, so he arranged a marriage between Pompey and his stepdaughter, Aemilia Scaura, showing…

RIVERS AND THE POWER OF ANCIENT ROME By Brian Campbell University of North Carolina Press, 2011 ISBN: 978-146966866 The Roman Empire covered a vast swathe of territory, encompassing many rivers, both great and small. In this book, Brian Campbell explores the role and influence of rivers on the society and culture of the Roman world. Campbell explores a variety of aspects of rivers, such as their importance to trade and transport, and their use in military strategy. THE NILE: HISTORY'S GREATEST RIVER By Terje Tvedt I.B. Tauris, 2021 ISBN: 978-1350522237 The Nile is the most recognizable river in the ancient world. In The Nile, Terje Tvedt offers a 5000-year history of the river, charting the economic, political, and mythical significance of the river from pre-history to the modern day, weaving…

Enheduanna’s relationship with Inanna and her several poems to the goddess may reflect the Sargonid dynasty’s cooption of the deity for political means. Prior to Sargon’s conquests, Inanna was worshipped throughout Mesopotamia, but her main centre of worship seems to have been Uruk, with the Eanna district of the city devoted to the goddess from its earliest period. Uruk was also, coincidentally, the main centre of opposition to Sargon’s conquests in southern Mesopotamia. With his defeat of Uruk, Sargon may have adopted Inanna as his protector in an attempt to assert his authority over the city. In the Sumerian legend of Sargon’s origins, for example, Inanna protects Sargon from the schemes of Ur-Zababa, the king of Kish. Her worship, especially after she was syncretized with the goddess Ishtar, was promoted…

The Arian Controversy, one of the most divisive theological conflicts of the fourth century, emerged as bishops sought imperial favor while struggling to define Christian orthodoxy. Centered around the teachings of Arius, a priest from Alexandria, the controversy questioned the nature of Christ's divinity. Arius argued that the Son was created by the Father and thus subordinate, a stance opposed by Athanasius and others who championed the Nicene declaration that Christ was ho‑ moousios (of the same substance) as the Father. The Council of Nicaea (AD 325), convened by Emperor Constantine, sought to resolve the debate, but disagreements persisted, exacerbated by imperial politics, and shifting allegiances. The controversy led to repeated exiles and reinstatements of bishops, including Athanasius, shaping the fragile relationship between emperors and church leaders. Though Nicaea's doctrine…

For over three centuries, the great river had served as the visible symbol of Rome’s domination, and as such, had borne witness to countless scenes of battle, negotiation, and imperial pageantry. On this day, Valens and Athanaric would strike a treaty of significant – if often misunderstood – importance, marking the beginning of the latest chapter in the saga of Rome’s Danubian borderland. So, why was the Danube such a useful symbolic marker for the Romans? Geographically, the Danube cuts through the heart of the Carpathian Basin. The region was home to tribes of Pannonians, Getae, Dacians, Thracians, and Celts. From the seventh century BC, Greeks began to establish trade outposts along the coast of the Black Sea, and finally, beginning in earnest during the reign of Augustus (31 BC…

The misperceptions surrounding Kleopatra stem from the Roman view of the queen, rather than the realities of her life or her Greco-Egyptian heritage. This is because much of the historic record of Kleopatra’s reign was preserved for us by Roman authors. These writers were commissioned by Augustus to present Kleopatra as a blameworthy figure, since Augustus wanted to frame his strife with Antony as a war against the corruptible influences of Egypt and its ignominious queen, not a Roman civil war. The Augustan-era writers transformed Kleopatra from a powerful queen who skillfully ruled one of the greatest kingdoms of antiquity into a sultry, empty-headed sex-kitten who focused only on her own pleasures. Even the English spelling of Cleopatra is the Latinized version. The transliteration of her Greek name is Kleopatra.…

Early Christian writers decried the Roman chariot races as places where people indulged in sinful behaviour. Tertullian, writing in the late second century AD, said how the circus was “possessed by all those spirits of the devil” (On Spectacles 8). Indeed, descriptions of the activities in the Circus Maximus paint it as a place where all manner of vices were accommodated. Infamously, Ovid describes how attending the races was an opportunity for meeting a sexual partner (Amores 3.2), while Juvenal mentions prostitutes working there (Satires 3.60–68). Tertullian laments the excitement of betting at the races (On Spectacles 16), which is echoed by other authors, such as Juvenal, who describes how a praetor lost his fortune betting on races he had organized (Satires 11.197–204). The Circus Maximus was also a setting…

As is often the case, we know more of the pets of those Romans wealthy enough to have peers who discussed them in their writings or who were able to immortalize their affection for their pets in stone memorials. Nevertheless, from the little we know, pets were part Roman life from the richest to the poorest. For example, the number of raven bones in army camps suggests that ordinary soldiers kept these birds as pets. We know more about the pets of the legionaries’ commander-in-chief, for imperial pets are well-documented, such as the snake which Tiberius used to feed by hand and the the two bears (‘Innocence’ and ‘Goldflake’) to which the emperor Valerian used throw those whose petitions he deemed frivolous. In his Apophoreta (‘menagerie’), Martial lists a variety…