Innholdsfortegnelse for AH 51 i Ancient History Magazine

EDITORIAL – WINE, BEER, AND CHEER Humans have been consuming alcohol for millennia. The oldest evidence for fermented drinks dates back to 10,000 BC! Predating the invention of agriculture, it has even been proposed it was the desire for alcoholic beverages that spurred on the agricultural revolution. From the Americas to ancient China, alcohol was consumed by various cultures across the span of human history. In the ancient world, especially the ancient Mediterranean, wine was the most widely-consumed alcoholic beverage. However, beer was also consumed, such as in Celtic Europe and ancient Mesopotamia. While today, in the modern world, we might primarily consider alcohol a social aid, mostly consumed at parties or other social occasions, it had a far greater significance in ancient societies. In addition to being consumed for…

A fossil discovered in the 1970s that has only recently been analyzed by archaeologists at the Mycenae Museum, suggests that ancient Greeks went fossil hunting in the Bronze Age. The fossil, which was a bone of a Stephanorhinus, a species of rhino that went extinct approximately 15,500 years ago, was originally discovered in the Southwest Quarter of the archaeological site of Mycenae near a deposit of artefacts in a basement, where it was placed in the thirteenth century BC. The ancient Greeks of the Iron Age are known to have been aware of fossils, which they incorporated into their myths. For example, a Corinthian black-figure vase, from the mid-sixth century BC, depicts Heracles and Hesione confronting a sea monster that is represented by a skull appearing from a cave, which…

SPECIAL BARBARIAN SETTLEMENTS IN FIFTH-CENTURY GAUL From the days of the Republic, many barbarians were taken into Roman territory, settled, and integrated according to well-established processes of receptio (reception). The crossing of the Danube by Fritigern’s Tervingian Goths in 376 is one example, albeit one wherein, infamously, the normal procedures rapidly broke down. Nonetheless, when we discuss the fifth century ‘barbarian settlements’ in Gaul we usually mean, above all, the stationing of the Goths in Aquitaine in 418/9, and that, around 443, of the Burgundians in Sapaudia. Was it 'policy'? It is impossible to regard the fifth-century ‘barbarian settlements’ as any sort of ‘policy’ because the groups were settled in response to very different circumstances. In 418 the Goths of Wallia were withdrawn by Constantius (soon to be the short-lived emperor…

THEME: Beer & wine in antiquity THEME INNOVATION, LIBATIONS, AND INTOXICATION The Etruscans were an ancient civilization that flourished in Italy, in what is now Tuscany, parts of Umbria, and Lazio, from around 800–100 BC. It was the Etruscans who initiated notable wine production in Italy. Wine was more than just a beverage for the Etruscans; it was integral to their daily life and social customs, played a significant role in their religious ceremonies, and was an important facet of their economy. The cultivation of vineyards and production of wine were advanced practices, indicating the economic development of Etruria, while the wine was highly valued and became a significant trade commodity. From vine to wine While Dionysius of Halicarnassus, writing in the first century BC, tells us that the land of Etruria…

The Romans often enhanced their wines with additional flavourings, altering both the taste and bouquet. Ingredients included herbs and spices such as cardamom, cinnamon, myrrh, and saffron, or, to impart a floral essence, the petals of roses or violets. A particularly popular ‘cocktail’, described as a savoury wine by Pliny, was conditum paradoxum. A combination of wine, honey, and pepper might sound unappetizing, but this syrupy smooth mixture with its spicy finish is quite delicious. Why not give this ancient recipe, adapted from Apicius’ cookery book, a go. Ingredients » 250 ml white wine » 60 g honey » ¼ tsp ground black pepper » One bay leaf » Pinch of saffron » ¼ tsp ground mastic (or fennel seeds) » One date Roast the stone from the date in…

THEME: Beer & wine in antiquity THEME THE NECTAR OF HUMANS AND GODS Archaeological evidence of ancient wine production has slowly grown in recent decades. The remains of grapes have been recovered, along with vines, vineyard arrangements, and irrigation and hydrological systems. This is matched by artefacts and tools, components of wine presses and other architectural structures, and metal, ceramic, and wooden evidence for the fermentation, storage, transport, and serving of wine. Along with Pliny the Elder’s Natural History, detailed ancient literary evidence from the Roman period survives, such as Varro’s De re rustica, Cato the Elder’s De agricultura, Columella’s De re rustica, and Palladius’ Opus agriculturae, showing how aspects of ancient viniculture are remarkably similar to traditional systems still used today. Cultivation and the harvest Archaeological material from Pompeii and other…

The Nimrud ivories have long been seen as a benchmark of Phoenician art in the Levant. They dwelt not only on the Levantine coast, in cities such as Sidon, Tyre, and Arwad, but also travelled throughout the Mediterranean, with Phoenicians seafarers establishing trading posts and colonies on Cyprus, at Carthage, on the Iberian Peninsula, and especially in the Delta area of the Nile on the north coast of Egypt. They even lived further south at Memphis, where Herodotus records a significant presence of Tyrians (2.112). There, Phoenician communities lived and worked, keeping their own customs, but were also well integrated into the culture of the country where they stayed. The presence of Phoenicians in Egypt, especially in the seventh century BC and later, cannot be ignored when considering the Nimrud…

LIVING LIKE AN ANCIENT ROMAN RELIGION BEYOND STATE SACRIFICES It is often said that Roman religion was a civic affair that had little need for individual belief, that it was a transactional relationship by which the gods protected and aided a city in exchange for worship. The fact that individual piety was not needed to perform religious duties is reflected in the fact that in the Roman Republic many priests were elected to that office. However, individual Romans did interact with the divine and supernatural, though such interactions often walked a fine line between religion and superstition. Individual Romans did not always leave it to the city authorities to deal with the great gods on their behalf. Individuals would pray to the gods for their own personal issues, and if their…

Out of One, Many Ancient Greek Ways of Thought and Culture By Jennifer T. Roberts ISBN: 978-0691181479 Princeton University Press (2024) - £30.00 www.press.princeton.edu It is not difficult to find discussions of ancient Greece that seem to present all Greeks as, effectively, Athenians (except those strange Spartans), with various elements of Athenian culture expanded to the wider Greek world. Now, this is hardly surprising. The vast majority of surviving literary evidence from the ancient Greek world comes from Athens, and we learn about non-Athenian Greeks, such as the Spartans, from the perspective of the Athenians. In Out of One, Many Jennifer T. Roberts aims “to explore areas of dramatic divergence” in Greek culture (p. 7), for, as Roberts notes early in book, “there was no such thing as “the Greek…

Archaeologists excavating Ulucak Höyük, one of the oldest sites in Turkey, located in the district of Kemalpaşa district of Izmir, have unearthed an 8000-year-old figurine of a woman. First discovered in 1960 by British archaeologist David French, excavations have been carried out at the site consistently since 1995. Since then, three different habitation layers have been revealed, dating to the Late Roman period, the Late Bronze Age, and the Neolithic age. The Neolithic site is 8850 years old, “one of the earliest farmer village settlements in Western Anatolia”, according to Dr Özlem Çevik of Trakya University, who leads the excavation, and appears to have been continuously inhabited for over 1000 years. In addition to the ceramic pots and stone tools and weapons discovered at the site, a total of six…

THEME: Beer & wine in antiquity THEME BEER IN ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIA In recent decades, the global origin story for alcoholic beverages has been pushed deeper and deeper into the prehistoric past. But these earliest traces of alcohol are scattered and fragmentary, just tantalizing glimpses that offer only limited insight into the beverages themselves and their role in human society. It is in ancient Mesopotamia – and ancient Egypt, around the same time – that a beer culture first bursts into view in vivid detail. The cuneiform writing system was invented in Mesopotamia just before 3000 BC. The earliest tablets were mostly accounting records, dedicated to keeping track of valued resources. One of those resources was beer, and it was already being produced and consumed in some quantity. Over the ensuing three millennia…

In funerary contexts, wine had a symbolic significance. Tomb paintings and grave goods often included depictions of banquets and symposia, suggesting a belief in the continuation of social practices in the afterlife. Wine amphorae, both locally-made and imported from the Aegean, and drinking vessels were commonly placed in tombs as offerings for the deceased, providing for their needs in the afterlife. Wine, therefore, was not only a part of daily life but also deeply intertwined with Etruscan beliefs about death and the afterlife. The presence of wine-related artefacts such as amphorae and drinking and pouring vessels in tombs underscores its importance in Etruscan culture.…

SPECIAL CANINE ASPECTS OF CLASSICAL SEA MONSTERS While, on the surface, mythology can simply be seen as a series of fantastical and magical stories, if you read between the lines, mythological stories tell us so much about the aspirations and anxieties of the societies they are from. Mythological sea creatures, therefore, can be read as embodying the dangers of the sea, the fear of the unknown. Yet many Greco-Roman mythological sea creatures developed canine characteristics. What could this mean? One of the most memorable sea creatures from Greco-Roman mythology is Scylla, whom Odysseus and his men must pass on their journey. The description of Scylla in the Odyssey is like an eldritch horror from Lovecraft: Besides her puppy-like voice, Scylla has no elements that we might consider canine. Yet over time,…

The idea that sacred prostitution was practiced in the ancient Near East was once deeply rooted in Near Eastern studies, but has since come under increasing scrutiny. Herodotus is one source of this idea, as he described how women in Babylon, once in their lives, would have sex with men for a sum of money in honour of the goddess Mylitta (1.199). Subsequently, in the nineteenth century, scholars, trying to find the sacred prostitutes Herodotus described, began to translate cultic terms using sexual terminology. None of the terminology translated as such had any meaning of sacred prostitution, however. Indeed, some of the positions that were once considered to have been sacred prostitutes have, upon re-examination, found to have been chaste. Some terms that were taken to indicate that some women…

THE ROMAN BANQUET: IMAGES OF CONVIVIALITY By Katherine Dunbabin Cambridge University Press, 2023 ISBN: 978-0521822527 Focusing on the visual evidence, Dunbabin explores the Roman banquet from the first century BC to the sixth century AD, discussing the ways that the Roman banquet evolved over time. Not only is the banquet itself the focus, but so is the representation of the banquet, such as ‘Totenmahl’ scenes on funerary sculptures. IN THE LAND OF NINKASI: A HISTORY OF BEER IN ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIA By Tate Paulette Oxford University Press, 2024 ISBN: 978-0197682449 Drawing on over 100 years of previous research, Paulette offers the very first study of ancient Mesopotamian beer. Written in an approachable, light-hearted style, Paulette’s work is accessible for readers who have little previous exposure to ancient Mesopotamia, exploring the various…

SPECIAL AENEAS: PRINCE, REFUGEE, FOUNDER OF ROME Aeneas appears first in the epic cycle of the Trojan War. The most famous part of this epic cycle is Homer’s Iliad, in which we encounter Aeneas first at the muster of forces loyal to King Priam of Troy near the city’s walls, leading the men of Dardania, the mountain realm south of the city: “brave Aeneas, the offspring of Aphrodite’s amorous encounter with Anchises on the slopes of Ida” (Iliad 2. 819-20). In his battlefield encounter with fearsome Achilles, he is saved from death by the seagod Poseidon, who declares that “It is destined that he shall be the survivor, that the generation of Dardanos shall not die … since Dardanos was dearest to Kronides [Zeus] of all his sons that have been…

THEME: Beer et wine in antiquity THEME ALL ABOUT ROMAN DRINKING CULTURE When it came to wine, the Romans were spoilt for choice. As well as the home-grown varieties, wine was imported into Italy from all over the Mediterranean and beyond. Just like today, the wines ranged in price, reflecting their quality. A graffito from Pompeii reads: Hedone says, “You can drink here for one as, if you give two, you will drink better; if you give four, you will drink Falernian.” – CIL 4 1679 Falernian was very much at the top end of the scale – it was one of the most famous wines of the Roman world, and much praised by the wine critics of the day. We hear that this tawny yellow nectar was a potent brew and…

THEME: Beer & wine in antiquity THEME THE POLITICS & RITUAL OF CELTIC FEASTING Alcohol has been the most common human psychoactive agent worldwide for millennia. During the early Iron Age in west-central Europe north of the Alps (700–400 BC), alcohol fuelled feasts that provided a means to gain and maintain political power. Virtually all excavated elite graves of this period contain vessels involved in the distribution and consumption of beer, mead, and wine. Communal drinking forged social bonds and heightened the ritual drama of festivals, funerals, and other gatherings. By providing alcohol as a gift to participants, the hosts of the feast accrued social prestige, while demonstrating wealth and organizational ability. The social organization of the West Hallstatt area, generally defined as southwest Germany, eastern France, and Switzerland north of the…

SPECIAL THE EGYPTIAN ORIGINS OF THE NIMRUD IVORIES In 612 BC, the Babylonians and the Medes struck the final blow against the Assyrian Empire, capturing and sacking the city of Nineveh. Subsequently, the palaces of the Assyrian kings declined, until all that was left was ruins. The palaces ultimately disappeared until the British excavators, Austen Henry Layard and William Loftus, rediscovered them in the nineteenth century. When archaeologists excavated the ruins of the Assyrian palaces in Nimrud, they found pieces of ivory scattered everywhere. The ivories were thought to be inlaid pieces of furniture, the wood of which had long since disappeared. The huge task of collecting and repairing of the broken pieces lasted decades. Several catalogues were published by The British Institute for the Study of Iraq under the direction…

SPECIAL TIBERIUS' CHARACTER IN ROMAN SOURCES Few political figures in history are as enigmatic to both their contemporaries and to modern historians as Tiberius Claudius Nero. An unquestionably talented military commander, Tiberius came into the principate thanks to his familial ties to the first emperor, Augustus. Tiberius’ mother, Livia, had married Augustus, and Tiberius was subsequently raised in the imperial household. Moreover, Tiberius also married the princeps’ daughter, Julia the Elder. Having outlived all other possible candidates, Tiberius was proclaimed emperor upon Augustus’ death. The events of his reign provided the basis for some of the Roman world’s most talented historians of the first and second centuries AD to exercise their craft, including such literary talents as Tacitus, Suetonius, Flavius Josephus, Cassius Dio, and Velleius Paterculus. Of these, only Paterculus held…