Innholdsfortegnelse for AH 33 i Ancient History Magazine

There is perhaps no term that has caused more confusion, stereotyping, or mythmaking than the word ‘Celtic’. What or who falls under the mysterious umbrella of ‘Celt’? Is this the name of a unified group of people or disparate tribes with shared cultural markers and traditions? This issue sets out to debunk some of the myths and pull back the veil of mystery that surrounds this fraught term. We look at the beginnings of Celts in the historical record by examining Hallstatt culture and learning from Bronze and Iron Age burial practices. What did Celtic peoples eat and drink? We find out in an article on Celtic feasting. Did the Celts really fight naked? Find out the truth in “The Celts at War”. Of course, no issue on Celtic history…

There is a widespread popular belief that ‘the Celts’ were one of the early ‘peoples’ of Europe, unified both politically and in their social organization over long periods of time and wide geographical areas. Traditionally, it has been assumed that they developed from earlier populations in the late Bronze Age in Central Europe around 1000 BC and expanded their territory across much of Europe, and even into Asia Minor, between roughly 600 and 250 BC until their fortunes changed. They were slowly subjugated, mostly by the ascendant Roman state in the final two centuries BC. Origin myths and Celtic communities Indeed, there even are ancient Celtic legends that seem to support this narrative. Livy, for instance, tells us of an elderly king of the Celtic Bituriges named Ambigatus, who allegedly…

Julius Caesar accepted the ‘surrender’ of a number of British kings during his campaigns into southern Britain, but annexed no lands. It was not until the campaign of Claudius in AD 43 that the Roman occupation of the British Isles actually began. At the culmination of this campaign, the surrender of eleven kings was received by Claudius, although this only signalled the beginning of a long and haphazard process of Roman expansion into Britain. It is believed that out of these eleven kings, one of them was probably Antedios, king of the Iceni and predecessor to Prasutagus who ruled with Boudicca as his queen. Archaeological evidence from the Icenian heartland of Norfolk and Suffolk suggests that the Iceni were a prosperous yet isolated tribe, composed of a mixture of Celtic…

A few ancient sources mention the thumb in connection with gladiator fights in the arena. But what did this gesture really mean, and who made it? Are there others? The significance of the thumb The expression “pollice (con)verso” appears twice in Roman poetry. One is a satire by Juvenal about two parvenus who organize a munus and win the audience’s favour by giving the verdict of the deathblow by turning their thumbs whenever the audience wants the defeated gladiator to die. The other source is Prudentius’ Contra Symmachum. Here he writes about a Vestal Virgin who orders the death of the defeated gladiator, who is lying on the ground, by turning her thumb. This text might have been the inspiration for the representation of the Vestals in Jean-Léon Gérôme’s painting.…

Tell us about the Swedish Cyprus Expedition. The SCE team in 1927-1931 comprised three archaeologists: Einar Gjerstad, Erik Sjöqvist, and Alfred Westholm. This composition made it possible for different sites to be excavated at the same time. The architect John Lindros was travelling between different sites for the drawing and photographic documentation. The result of this distribution of duties was spectacular, since almost 25 sites were excavated within the four years of the expedition. In this context of well-orchestrated archaeological exploration, all members of the SCE became experts on Cypriot archaeology and developed a lively and long-lasting interest in the island’s past as well as in its present. What did they discover at Ayia Irini, and why does this site continue to remain of immense importance to scholars of ancient…

The mourners selected an exceptional bronze drinking vessel known as a situla to hold his cremated remains. A series of fabulous objects – many imported from afar – were selected as grave goods: two horse bridles with rich ornaments and bits, yoke components, textiles, a butchering knife, an axe, two razors, a drinking bowl, and a long sword that was richly decorated with gold, bronze, worked bone, and lead. During his funeral, the blade of the sword was bent round and wrapped in a woollen cloth – the latter was also done with his tools and iron rings from the yoke. In life these possessions spoke of the man’s high status within his community and his ability to maintain contacts with elites across Europe. In death they would do the…

The world of the Celts spanned the continent of Europe, from the central region to as far north as the British Isles, as far west as the Iberian Peninsula and as far east as Anatolia. Scholars still argue over whether these Bronze and Iron Age peoples, who thrived between 800 BC and AD 100, were of one culture or many. One trait they all shared, however, was a passion for fighting. Some of the war stories the Celts themselves told are preserved in Ireland as the Táin Bó Cúailnge in The Ulster Cycle, and in Wales as the Four Branches and Native Tales of the Mabinogion. They tell of the glorious quests and battles of ancient heroes. Written down in the eighth through thirteenth centuries AD respectively, they draw on…

In the aftermath of the murder of Julius Caesar on the Ides of March 44 BC, his young heir swore to hunt down each and every assassin and bring them to justice. Before the first battle at Philippi in Greece in 42 BC, Octavian (who inherited the name C. Julius Caesar) promised to build a temple to the war god Mars if he would give him victory. Ringleaders Brutus and Cassius having died, Octavian strived to fulfil his vow. It was seen as an act of piety (pietas) towards his adoptive father. Octavian found a spot adjacent to the Roman Forum near the Suburra. It took him years to legally purchase all of the land and buildings, which were divided up among many private owners. He paid using the proceeds…

• summa rudis and secunda rudis: the two umpires who supervised the fight. • editor muneris: the giver of the games; in Rome, it was often the Emperor himself. • thraex: the Thracian, who was equipped with a curved sword, the sica, and a small rectangular shield, the parma. • murmillo: a heavily equipped gladiator with a short sword, the gladius, and large rectangular shield, the scutum. • hoplomachus: equipped with a round shield (parmula), and a spear (hasta). • retiarius: fighter with a net and trident. • secutor: standard opponent of the retiarius, similarly equipped as the murmillo, but with a different helmet. • essedarii: fighters with swords and oval shields.…

The Alternative Augustan Age Edited by Kit Morrell, Josiah Osgood, and Kathryn Welch ISBN: 978-0190901400 Oxford University Press (2019) – $85.00 www.global.oup.com There are periods in history in which one individual’s impact is considered so great and distinct that it is deemed his or her ‘age’. Traditionally seen as such is Caesar Augustus and his times. This new volume sets out to challenge the notion of an ‘Augustan Age’. The book came out of the Symposium Campanum conference held in 2016. Presenters were invited to challenge the traditional view that Augustus was chiefly responsible for the major political and cultural developments of his age. By de-focusing Augustus and examining the other figures of the period, the contributors’ papers seek to present a new view of a familiar period. The twenty…

From their very first discovery centuries ago, graves with rich grave goods have been known as ‘chieftains’ graves’ or ‘princely burials’, or by similar terms in other languages (Fürstengrab in German, tombe de chef in French, or vorstengraf in Dutch). While the ostensible richness of grave goods and/or the apparent time and effort it would have taken to construct the (usually quite large) funerary monuments are generally seen as evidence that a deceased was of high status, it is important to remember that such terms are names for an archaeological type of grave in which specific types of objects are found – it does not mean we know the decedents to have been actual princes or chieftains.…

Feasting occasions provided a venue for chieftains to hand out food, drinks, and valuable items such as torcs and brooches as rewards for service. These feasts, and the gifts distributed during them, were an important form of payment between Celtic chieftains and their vassals. In doing so, they reinforced the bonds of loyalty that held together Celtic society. The need to supply feasts in turn helped to fuel competition and conflict between Celtic chiefs, particularly over sources of wealth such as gold, wine, and cattle. Defining Celtic feasts The term ‘Celtic’ is applied to a wide range of regions, cultures, peoples, and societies who spoke forms of Celtic languages. These regions also underwent significant changes from the Bronze Age, when Celtic and Proto-Celtic languages developed, to late antiquity. It is…

After Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in 332 BC, Greek culture began to flow into the country, and Egyptian culture poured out in exchange. This fusion of cultural and religious habits gave birth to the cult of Isis, which spread throughout the Roman Empire in the first century AD. Key to Isis’ appeal was her ability to morph to fit the cultural ideals and religious habits of different peoples. In doing so she embodied whatever traits were most important. Originally a protector of the Pharaoh, outside of Egypt her roles as a protector of sailors, a bringer of harvests, and goddess of love became paramount. more important. Isiac devotees considered other goddesses such as Venus, Tyche, and Demeter to be facets of Isis, roles that she carried out in her…

From antiquity up until the present day, there is a difference in the use of dairy products between the north and the south of Europe. Both regions produce and eat cheese, but the production and eating of butter and drinking of milk is more common in northern Europe. Pliny the Elder claimed that while the northern barbarians enjoyed cream and even buttermilk, they had never figured out how to produce cheese, or else had no interest in it. Evidence of this early dairy production survives in Ireland and Scotland in the form of ‘bog butter’. These large, white to yellow waxy deposits are found in peat bogs and wrapped in animal bladders, bark, or placed in wooden containers. Composed either of butter or other animal fat, these lumps were buried…

THE CELTS: ORIGINS, MYTHS AND INVENTIONS By John R. Collis Tempus Publishing, 2003 ISBN: 978-0752429137 Collis looks at the use of the term ‘Celtic’ – often bandied about without much thought as to what it really means. This book looks at what ‘Celtic’ means and at the relationship between the celts in Britain and other Celts. It also examines how hundreds of years later the term ‘Celt’ became mythologized and how this new romanticized viewpoint forever changed our modern understanding of what ‘Celtic’ means. THE CELTS: SEARCH FOR A CIVILIZATION By Alice Roberts Heron Books, 2015 ISBN: 978-1784293352 Alice Roberts takes readers across Europe in search of the true story behind the mystery of the Celts. She explores their origins, the make-up of their culture, and legacy. The book aims…